History magazine - researches - rubric Historical sources and artifacts

Abstract: in the early years of the Russian army not only the sovereign’s servitors people were armed with the handguns, «Igneous fight» as it was then called, but also many of taxpayers (townspeople and county people), especially on the southern borders. Improvement of the handguns, new forms of its production and patterns of use has allowed the political and military leaders of the country to more successfully solve the problem of defense of the Muscovy against external and internal enemies.

Keywords: history, army, weapons, «Igneous fight», hand cannon, arquebuses, pistols, carbines, muskets, bandelers.

Abstract: the article shows the history of Aristotele Fioravanti as an evidence that Moscow attracted masters of Renaissance Italy, and that in the last quarter of the XV century here came the outstanding figures of Italian construction art of the time. The type of Renaissance culture brought by Fioravanti is analyzed, the evidence of his acquaintance with the leaders of the Byzantine humanism are provided. In the development of architecture of Moscow Kremlin it is traced how the ideal of «old Greek divinely established godliness» was fulfilled with the aborning ideal of the Third Rome during last quarter of the XV century.

Keywords: history, Aristotle Fioravanti, the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow Kremlin, the church «Russian piety», a new type of temple space, «former Greek divinely instituted piety», Byzantine Humanism, Moscow — the Third Rome, «historicity » of the Moscow artisticideology, the relationship of national spiritual history of the Byzantine .

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2022.6.39093

Abstract: The article is devoted to the study of the development of the transport network of one of the largest regions of Russia on the example of mapping land routes in different historical periods. The relevance of the research topic is due to the lack of research, among the available historical and geographical works related to the study of the history of mapping the transport network of Yakutia. The purpose of this work is to study the history of the development of the transport network of Yakutia from the XVII to the beginning of the XXI centuries based on the analysis of various cartographic sources. To achieve this goal, the domestic experience of transport mapping was investigated; on the basis of identified published and unpublished sources, multi-time maps showing land routes of communication were selected and analyzed; on the basis of the analysis, the main stages of mapping land transport in Yakutia were identified. The study was conducted using a systematic approach, historical-comparative, cartographic and geoinformation methods. Due to the fact that this research is at the junction of a number of sciences, the work is based on an integrated approach. As a results of the study, the authors identified the stages in the history of mapping the transport network of Yakutia: the first stage (XVIII – late XIX centuries); the second stage (the first half of the twentieth century); the third stage (mid–twentieth century - 1990s); the fourth stage (post–Soviet period - to the present). Currently, a new information environment for the development of historical and geographical sciences is being created. GIS technologies enable access to historical maps, as well as the emergence of new ways to extract historical information from them. There are opportunities to detect previously hidden information, extract it and process it. The practical significance of the presented work is connected with the possibility of using its results to determine the directions of development and optimization of territorial aspects of the functioning of transport networks of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia).

Keywords: GIS technology, stages of development, Ayan way, Okhotsk way, multi-time analysis, maps of transport, mapping, ways of communication, transport network, Yakutia

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.5.36215

Abstract: This article is dedicated to portrait images in Western European porcelain of the XVIII century. Research is conducted on the works created in various European countries, such as Germany (Meissen), France (Sevres), Austria (Vienna), and England (Wedgwood Pottery Manufactory). Prominent masters of porcelain –Kendler, Boizot, Grassi – are the authors of the portraits. Sculptural portrait images of August III – painter of the court of the French Queen Marie Antoinette and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II are notable for exquisite artistic merit. The article reviews porcelain sculpture, as well as oil painted portraits. Interpretation of the images manifests the features of three styles characteristic to art of the XVIII century: Baroque, Rococo and Classicism. Portrait images reflect the themes typical to the Age of Enlightenment. The article describes the peculiarities of the creations of artists who worked in various European porcelain manufactories. Research methodology is based on the detailed stylistic analysis of the works of Baroque, Rococo and Classicism; fundamental examination of the works in historical sequence for determining the evolutionary changes; comparative analysis for revealing national and authorial specificities. The novelty is defined by the fact that this article is first to comprehensively analyze the portrait images in porcelain of such countries as Germany, France, and Austria of the XVIII century, as well as in identification of the features characteristic to different artists.

Keywords: Grassi, Boizot, Kändler, Vienna, Sèvres, Meissen, porcelain, Baroque, Rococo, Classicism

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2018.3.26081

Abstract: The aim of the presented study is to determine the main functions of the visual attributes of military monuments erected during the period between 1881 - 1917 in the formation of the image of the events of the past and their heroes. The subject of this study is the commemoration of war, while the object is the visual features of the military monuments created between 1881 - 1917 and tied to the events of the Russian Empire's military history and its heroes: triumphant victories, heroic defensive actions, victims of military events and outstanding military figures. All indicated monuments are directly related to the commemoration of war, they possess a number of visual attributes, the main function of which is the creation and development of certain emotions and ideas regarding military history in the viewer and, consequently, of the subsequent generations. This article uses the interdisciplinary approach since the analysis of military monuments requires recourse to the history of art and cultural geography. Additionally, the historical-comparative method was used in order to determine the common and distinct features among the analyzed monuments. Turning to the typological method has allowed the author to identify certain groups of symbols, artistic and visual means, common features and differences among the considered monuments. In Russian historiography, military monuments have never been considered as individual and independent components of the process of forming historical memory. However, a partial study of this topic in modern historical science and the popularity of studies in the field of memory studies highlight its interdisciplinary nature and its clear current relevance. The visual features of military monuments had a number of functions: the formation of the cultural landscape, the establishment of the topographical and historical fixation, the formation of the scale and importance of the event, the symbolic presence of the empire and its participation in a particular event, the formation of the image of the enemy.

Keywords: double eagle, symbols, military monuments, comemmoration, Russia, visual qualities, monuments, height, memory, memory studies

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.3.21859

Abstract: The subject of this research is the localization of Orthodox shrines in Constantinople. This city was not only a place abounding in symbols, but also a sacred space confined within city walls. The heiropotia of Constantinople developed and grew as relics arrived that came from all corners of the Oikomena. Russian pilgrims went there even before Moscow was pronounced to be the Third Rome. The journeys of the Russian pilgrims are the main source for the identification of the location of shrines, relics, objects of worship, pilgrim routes. The study's author reconstructs the topography of churches, localizes relics and pilgrim routes in Constantinople. On the basis of the study of medieval journeys of Russian pilgrims, the author drew maps of reconstructions, which reflect the topography of the places of worship in the shrines of Constantinople. The main contribution of the author to the study of the given topic is the examination of the topography of Orthodox shrines in Constantinople as a complex. The work's novelty lies in its visualization of the location of relics in the city's churches. The author's proposed reconstruction of the location of relics in the church of Hagia Sofia is particularly significant. The author's reconstructions reflect the close spiritual connection between Byzantium and Rus.

Keywords: Hagia Sofia, Orthodoxy, miracle-working icons, holy relics, relics, hills of Constantinople, journeys, shrines, pilgrims, Constantinople

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.4.23195

Abstract: The subject of this article is the 17th-20th-century sources containing biographical information on Wenhai Fuju (1685-1765), the seventh patriarch of the Qianhua school of Vinaya in China. The revival of the Vinaya school in China in the shape of the “Qianhua school” (“the Thousand Flowers School” or “the Mount Baohua school”) constituted the main change in the structure of Buddhist schools in China during the late Ming dynasty (1368-1644) and the Qing dynasty (1644-1912) as compared to the era of Yuan (1271-1368) and most of the Ming Dynasty. It was precisely Wenhai Fuju who strengthened the Qianhua school, which through his help began to claim to be the only proper school of Vinaya in China. All this motivates the interest in researching the figure of the seventh Qianhua patriarch. By means of researching the contents of sources and their authors, the sources are subdivided according to the chronology of their creation and the fullness of information concerning Wenhai Fuju they contain. The novelty of this article is that it reveals the main sources for conducting a biographical research on Wenhai Fuju based on the fullness and authenticity of their content. At the next stage of research the author offers a comparative analysis and critical review of these sources in order to construct an integral biographical account of the seventh Vinaya Qianhua patriarch.

Keywords: China, Buddhism, Vinaya, sources, genealogies, chronicles, Qing dynasty, Wenhai Fuju, Baohua, Qianhua

Abstract: based on the experience of the scientific school “History of the youth movement in Russia”, formed in the XXI century in Tambov State Technical University, the author reveals the possibility to use the modern central and regional archives in the study of Comsomol and it’s alternative organizations of the first post-revolutionary years. The article pays big attention to the role of sources that generally have not been used by researchers.

Keywords: history, source studies, methodology, historical records, archives, letters, youth, Komsomol, the NEP, the Communist Party.

Abstract: the paper is devoted to the study of textual and visual components of the image of the 6th Anglo-Ashanti War (1873-1874), represented in the British press – the first mass-illustrated magazine «The Illustrated London News» and the conservative newspaper «The Morning Post». Particular attention is given to the narrative techniques by which the British colonial comprehended the Others, their cultural and religious backgrounds.

Keywords: history, image, colonial, the Others, Africans, Ashanti, representation, savage, ambivalence, perception.

Abstract: the article is devoted to the study of anamnesis of therapeutic clinic of the Moscow State University in 1890th as a source on the history of everyday life of the second half of XIX century. The author analyzes the characteristics of this source and its new informational opportunities.

Keywords: history, daily life, source studies, methodology of history, casualty, gender, health care, professions and occupations, food, education and literacy.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.2.32607

Abstract: The article takes a look at the works of various porcelain manufactories: Italian Docchia, German Meissen and Nymphenburg, Viennese and French Sèvres. These works are subject to allegorical interpretation and symbolic meaning. This content feature is one of the characteristic features of Baroque and Rococo art. The author pays particular attention to the identification of allegorical attributes and specific elements of form and decor that carry symbolic meaning. Porcelain artifacts, the authors of which are prominent European masters (Soldani, Kändler, Eberlein, Bustelli, Niedermeier and Fournier), are examined in detail. These kinds of decorative and applied arts reflected the unique worldview of a person living in the 18th century - the period of Enlightenment. The following methods of art history laid the foundation for this study: the formal-stylistic and iconological analyses of porcelain artifacts, which enabled the author to identify the semantic content of examined images. The scientific novelty of this article lies in the fact that for the first time in Russian art studies, a comprehensive study of the works of 18th-century porcelain crafts from different countries was carried out in order to identify their symbolic meanings. A detailed study of these works gives the author reason to conclude that bestowing artifacts with symbolic content is characteristic of Baroque and Rococo art, and that these works reflected one of the features of the figurative art system of the 18th century.

Keywords: Kändler, Soldani, Sèvres, Vienna, Nymphenburg, Meissen, Doccia, porcelain, Eberlein, Bustelli

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.1.21373

Abstract: The article examines the resolutions of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (USSR) as the least studied written source on the history of government and legislature. In these resolutions, according to the author, apart from ideological factors, there are also interrelated directions of governing, administrative and educational natures, which are specifically directed at judges and executives at all levels of the judicial system. However, the most important aspect in understanding the unique content of this type of source is, in the opinion of the author, that the higher courts did not make the resolution of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the RSFSR and USSR into merely a source of political influence on the courts, but skillfully used its possibilities in professional ideology and court administration. In the article the author masterfully used general and specific scientific methods of knowledge in an informatively meaningful unity and in complex combination, including: analysis and synthesis, abstraction, system-structural, historical-genetic, comparative-legislative, typological and other methods. In describing the material the author chose the dialectic method of knowledge, acting in the role of the methodological basis for writing the article, the main principles of which (the principle of development and the principle of historicism) were used as the base for the study of the work's topic. The scientific novelty of the article lies in it turning to the questions of understanding the place and role of the resolutions of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the RSFSR (Soviet Union) as sources of understanding government-legislative phenomena. In the text the author analyzes the characteristics of this specific carrier of historical information in the field of methodology and method of applying and using it in the research work of the historian-jurist.

Keywords: resolution, Plenum, Supreme Court, role, place, history, source, classification, knowledge, information

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2022.5.39028

Abstract: The article discusses the headdress found during the study of the tower-shaped crypt of the village of Korotakh in the historical-geographical region of Malkhist (Itum-Kalinsky district of the Chechen Republic) and stored since 2016 among the exhibits of the National Museum of the Chechen Republic. The subject was introduced into scientific circulation in 1977 by R. A. Dautova and was repeatedly mentioned in scientific publications later. The fabric from which the cap is sewn was made in Italian weaving centers, and, according to radiocarbon dating, was made between 1430–1480. A certain discussion in the circles of researchers was caused by the origin of the dress and the circumstances under which it ended up at the disposal of the buried. The most plausible was the version of the capture of Italian fabric with Christian symbols as a trophy, followed by a deliberate partial trimming of the halo of Christ and the figures of the archangels. The author of the article for the first time provides a translation of the surviving part and a restored version of the text-embroidery on the headdress, which was identified by an associate professor of Ilia state university Temo Dzhodzhua as an old Georgian text composed in the Asomtavruli script. In the light of these data, the author examines the epigraphic monuments of the Argun Gorge and historical information reflecting close Chechen-Georgian cultural and religious contacts, which, in combination with the translation of the inscription on the headdress and the place of its discovery (on the border with Georgia), rejects, in the opinion of the author of the article, the version about the trophy origin of the headdress, and at the same time, perhaps, the opinion about the deliberate deformation of part of the Christian symbolism when sewing the cap. It is assumed that we can talk about technical reasons or not so reverent attitude of the local population to Christian symbols after the destructive campaigns of Timur.

Keywords: writing, Georgia, Genoese, crypt, Chechnya, Malkhist, asomtavruli, Korotakh, hat, cap

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.1.68592

Keywords: resolution, Plenum, Supreme Court, role, place, history, source, classification, knowledge, information

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.3.35727

Abstract: This article explores the peculiarities of application of compositional pattern of the enthroned goddess in the coroplast of the European part of Bosporus. A number of figurines of the East Crimean Historical and Cultural Museum-Reserve of such iconography is published for the first time, including the discarded coroplast products dating back to the IV century BC. The article reviews the emergence of iconography, its origins in the Neolithic cultures of Anatolia, and proliferation. The following sections are dedicated to the analysis of Bosporan terracotta of the enthroned goddess of the archaic and classical periods. The research methodology employs iconographic and semantic analysis, which implies the interpretation of religious representations reflected in the image of deity. A peculiarity Bosporan coroplast lies in popularity of the composition of enthroned goddess from the archaic period, which indicates a special role of the high status goddesses with a variety of features, such as Demeter, Aphrodite, Artemis, and Hecate in the beliefs of Bosporans. Terracotta complexes of the classical period demonstrate diversity of this iconographic type, as well as mark the emergence of characteristic attributes that allow identifying the image of deity. Coroplast data testify to the growing popularity of the goddess of Phrygian origin Cybele in the IV century BC. A hypothesis is advanced on the existence of a prototype of the number of figurines – the local cult statue of Cybele.

Keywords: terracottas, Scythians, Pantikapaeum, Bosporus, Hacilar, Chatal-Hoyuk, enthroned goddess, coroplasty, Demeter, Cybele

Abstract: in 1934 in the Russian State Archive of Film and Photographic Documents received the negatives of ethnographic content from the Institute of Nationalities of the USS. Based on the data collected from these photo documents, it has been suggested that they represented a range of photo collections of the Moscow ethnographic expeditions 1920-1931. The article shows how and why these visual sources dropped from the academic use, describes the work to restore their original line-up and making a List of photo collections based on the resulting documentary based. The results of this work again confirms the correctness of the position of a fund statement on archival records of documentary photographs, whose main task is to preserve the use of documentary photographs as a historical source.

Keywords: archiving, photographic documents, source study, CMN, history, ethnography, Yakovlev N.F., Schilling M.E., Pchelina E.G., the Caucasus.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.4.32637

Abstract: This article is dedicated to the problem of formation of national style in the architecture of French Renaissance. The indicated problem is the topic of intense discussion within the historiography of Renaissance. Leaning the concept of J. Burckhardt, who describes Renaissance as a specifically Italian phenomenon, a number of scholars identity French Renaissance with “Italianism”. On the other hand, there is a contradictory historiographical trend that acclaims national medieval tradition that views the revival of classical antiquity as a foreign and shallow phenomenon. An attempt is made to examine the problem from the perspective Renaissance itself, relying on the reasoning and assessments expressed by the three theoreticians of architecture: Sebastian Serlio, Philibert de l'Orme, and Jacques I Androuet du Cerceau. The conclusion is made that the theoreticians of French Renaissance were not prone to contrapose the shapes borrowed from antiquity to national tradition. They perceived antiquity as the common past of the entire contemporary to them culture. They did not see any preponderance of Italian Renaissance over the national culture. The contradiction between antiquity and Gothicism was interpreted as a contradiction between the ancient and the new, rather than foreign and native. In creation of the style of Renaissance architecture they resorted to synthesizing heritage of the antiquity with national medieval tradition.

Keywords: Philibert De l'Orme, series of prints, collections of drawings, architectural treatises, antiquity, Gothic, Renaissance, architecture, Sebastiano Serlio, Jacques Androuet du Cerceau the Elder

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.2.39842

Abstract: This article deals with the issue of recording royal titles in inscriptions in the languages of the Indian cultural tradition: Sanskrit and Pali. Using the example of a study of sources, the phenomenon of using the notation of titles is demonstrated, taking into account the use of Sanskrit spelling norms in inscriptions in the Pali language written using the Mon script. Such a phenomenon is of a non-permanent, variable in nature, which indicates the absence of a clear standard for recording the royal title in Pagan. The significance of this phenomenon is betrayed by the fact that Pagan was a political center that was under the overwhelming influence of Theravada Buddhism, which suggested an orientation towards the Pali language as one of the main languages of the canon and political culture. Possible reasons that prompted the Pagan rulers to use Sanskrit titles include the support of Brahmin cult shrines, which influenced the description of the figure of the ruler. The presence of such a phenomenon allows us to clarify some of the conclusions of historiography about the use of specific writing systems for recording texts in specific languages.

Keywords: brahmins, Sanskrit, Orthography, Title, material, Pagan, King, Pali, Inscriptions, influence

Abstract: the article reveals the informational potential of the confession statements of XVIII-XIX centuries. On the example of the famous merchant family Tretyakovs’, the author shows that from this historical source a unique information about various aspects of the lives of several generations of pre-revolutionary Moscow merchants can be extracted: the denominational activity, links with a particular parish, places of residence, consisting of residents of each house, everyday side of the life, etc. The author also lists some of the limitations associated with using this source.

Keywords: history, source study, Tretyakovs’ family, merchants, Moscow, confession statements, parishes, soroka (group of churches, formed the diocese), everyday life, Orthodoxy.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.4.29254

Abstract: By centering the deesis row and locating it above the Royal Gates, the image of the Savior in Power (Pantocrator) - a Russian version of the image of the Savior in Glory accompanied by the four living Beings - became the semantic and compositional dominant of the Russian high iconostasis and, thus, its main icon. The examination of the meaning and sources of this image is fundamental in solving the issue of the origin and design of the entire high iconostasis as a whole, which, in turn, is one of the key icons in the history and theory of Christian art. It is believed that the earliest icons of the Savior in Power are in the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, in the row of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and in the iconostasis of the Trinity Cathedral of the St. Sergius Lavra. Another image of the Savior in Power, considered early, is depicted in a miniature of the "Pereyaslavsky Gospel"; some scholars believe that it is the oldest preserved image of this icon and that it lies at the origins of this iconography. The miniature contains rudiments of more ancient compositions that supposedly are its source. If this is so, then this miniature should be considered one of the most important monuments of Old Russian visual art and deserves our closest attention. This article is focused on this monument and on the analysis of the evidence that supports the claim of it antiquity: the author describes the features of the miniature codex and identifies previously unknown or erroneously interpreted particularities of the miniature's composition of the Savior; additionally, the author introduces new material that is important for solving a number of attribution problems and theoretical issues. The author concludes that the features of the Pereyaslavsky miniature are the result of its later alterations.

Keywords: Majestas Domini, overpainting, manuscript miniatures, correction of miniatures, mandorla, the winged wheels, iconography, Saviour in Powers, Russian icon painting, Pereslavl Gospel

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.6.69119

Abstract: The socio-cultural appearance of students in the system of state labor reserves has not been the subject of special study by specialists. At the same time, the creation in 1940 of the system of state labor reserves of the USSR was accompanied by the formation of a specific social group, the study of the socio-cultural characteristics of which will complement the already existing ideas about the working youth of the Soviet period. The subject of the study are documents as historical sources. The object is students of the system of state labor reserves as a separate social group. The purpose of the article is to present a corpus of official documents and documents of personal origin, which are historical sources for the reconstruction of stable, integral images of students, forming the basis of "ceremonial" and "non–parade" portraits as a set of characteristics (markers) aimed at highlighting socio-demographic features, cultural values and mental characteristics, behavioral practices and appearance of representatives of this social group. The methodological basis of the research is the methods of source analysis and synthesis, which allow to reveal the content component of documents for the study of the declared topic. The results of the study are: 1) the allocation of six types of historical sources from the official records of the central and regional labor reserves management bodies to fiction, allowing to reconstruct the "parade" and "non-parade" portraits of students of the state labor reserves system as a separate social group; 2) disclosure of the information potential of these six types of historical sources, taking into account their source-study features for the reconstruction of the socio-cultural appearance of students.

Keywords: appearance, cultural values, socio-cultural image, railway schools, vocational schools, factory training schools, non-parade portrait of a student, ceremonial portrait of a student, state labor reserves, behavioral practices

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2022.4.38530

Abstract: The article is devoted to the large—circulation newspaper "Soviet Physicist" (now — "Kurchatov") of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute of Atomic Energy (now - SIC "Kurchatov Institute"). Having your own newspaper in a secret scientific institution is a special phenomenon. For a long time, it was printed with a note about the prohibition of removal from the territory. The newspaper was distributed only to employees. Based on archival materials of the SIC "Kurchatov Institute" and the Central State Administration of Moscow, the history of the newspaper is traced from its inception in 1967 to its renaming in 1992. The multi-circulation newspaper was created on the initiative of the Institute's staff. The general management of it was carried out by the party committee and the local committee of the institute. The pages of the "Soviet Physicist" reflect the life of the "Kurchatov" community in all its diversity. The article introduces a new historical source into scientific circulation and examines its informational potential for research on the history of the Soviet atomic project in general, as well as the main aspects of the life of the Institute's staff community in particular. The newspaper's materials are valuable for the study of social, cultural, political and scientific events and phenomena in the history of the I. V. Kurchatov Institute – the leading Soviet scientific center for nuclear physics.

Keywords: Soviet physicist, IAE, Kurchatov Institute, periodical printing, historical source, content analysis, high-circulation, history, newspaper, source studies

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.5.36548

Abstract: The article is dedicated to the peculiarities of settlement structure in Toropetsky Uyezd of the XVI century. In the XIV – XV centuries Toropets land was the eastern outskirts of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and in 1503 joined the Moscow state. The cadastre of 1540 describes the structure of Toropetsky Uyezd as the clusters of settlements, characterized by commonness of names and detected both in state (58 clusters) and local (79 clusters) lands. They differ in size, i.e. the number of settlements and court indicators. Mapping of the clusters of settlements reveals their location in the territory of uyezd, land area, and population density. Geographical reconstruction is carried out via geoinformation technologies. It is demonstrated that most developed part of the uyezd is Toropets Volost and the adjacent territories, such as eastern districts of the uyezd in the basin of the Western Dvina River, developed in the pre-Mongol period, and the basin of tributaries of the Kunya River. The model of settlement structure in Toropetsky Uyezd most likely corresponds to the type of land relations inherent to Syabry community, in which peasants jointly owned land, agricultural and fishery areas. Such settlement structure retained due to the peripheral position of Toropets and its relative autonomy. Common names served as a means for identification of the object of taxation. This settlement model gradually diminishes after Toropets has joined the Moscow State, first and foremost it pertains to the local lands. Common names are preserved as the geographical landmarks; while the individual names are widely used within such clusters, as the court indicators increase.

Keywords: GIS, landowning, community, settlement structure, rural settlement, Toropets, 16 century, historical geography, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Moscow state

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2018.6.28199

Abstract: The article examines the works of porcelain sculptures, made at manufactories in Meissen, Doccia, Sevres, Chelsea and Derby. The creators of these compositions were the leading masters of this artform in the 18th century: Permozer, Kendler, Kirchner, Soldani, Willems. These artists are united by their common use of Christian themes and iconography, which are rarely seen in the secular decorative and applied art of this era. At the same time, on the example of the works of various artists and manufactories, certain general patterns characteristic of this genre of porcelain sculptures can be traced. On the basis of a comparative formal stylistic analysis, the author of this article aims to identify the main figurative features of the examined artifacts, as well as the specific features and characteristics inherent to various manufactories and craftsmen. As a result of a formal analysis, the author comes to the conclusion that all these works clearly show Baroque style features, demonstrated through the expression and external exaltation of the figure, the desire of the masters to accurately convey the complex emotional state of the depicted characters, the artists' metaphorical thinking, and the combination of the mystical and the real.

Keywords: Doccia, Meissen, expression, Christian themes, sculpture, barocco, porcelain, Sevres, Chelsea, Derby

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.3.33005

Abstract: The object of this research is the historical role of academic community in cognition and development of northern Russian territories. The subject of this research is the information value of the Arctic diaries of microbiologist B. L. Isachenko in the context of scientific development of Arctic territories in the early XX century. Detailed analysis is conducted B. L. Isachenko;s Artic diary, written in 1930 in the course of expedition in the ice-breaker “Georgiy Sedov”, and its potential scientific application. The authors not only assessed the content of the diary note, but also pursued correlation with the historical context of expedition work in the Arctic during the late XIX – early XX centuries. The conducted analysis is of great interest to the historians of science, as it allows viewing the key milestones of life and creative path of the academician, as well as his contribution to the development of the Arctic. Systemic approach is used analyzing B. L. Isachenko’s Arctic diary in the context of history of Arctic development, as well as political and academic objectives of the country in 1930s. The author examines the field diary of the scholar based on then formation approach for understanding the essence of the document through its informational nature and determining its role in the social and personal space. The novelty of this work consists in introduction into the scientific discourse of the unique archival document, as well as in detailed analysis and citation of the personal diary of B. L. Isachenko, written in 1930 during the Arctic expedition in the ice-breaker “Georgiy Sedov”. The content and emphasis of the document appeared to be more extensive than the scientific tasks solved by academicians in the course of expedition. The conclusion is made that diary of B. L. Isachenko clearly traces two thematic lines: records of external occurrences, and description of the ideas and concerns of the author. There are several factors that define information value of the source (scientific component; detailed breakdown of expedition rout and observations; description of daily routine during the expedition). The author demonstrates the ability to “walk” the Arctic route using diary notes, follow the impressions of the participant, and determine the scientific tasks set by the academician during the expedition.

Keywords: history of science, Arctic exploration, icebreaker George Sedov, microbiology, arctic expedition, The Diary, Isachenko Boris Lavrentievich, information potential, personal space, collective memory

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.6.34463

Abstract: The subject of this article is the content of the foreign electronic archival documents of U.S. departments dedicated to the analysis of situation in the Soviet Union. The goal consists in carrying out a historiographical analysis of foreign documentary heritage of the United States within the framework of comprehension of historical experience of the development of the Soviet Union in the 1970s – 1989. The object this research is the published materials of the Central Intelligence Agency and the Historical Sector of the U.S. Department of State, which contain records on the analysis of development of the Soviet Union during this period. Relevance of this topic is substantiated by increased of the publically available foreign electronic archival materials, which requires their analysis, description, determination of information capacity, as well as assessment of information contained therein for further utilization in the historical (humanities) research on the contemporary history of Russia. The novelty is defined by the fact that this article is first based on interpretation of foreign historical sources to describe the capabilities and limitations of different types of published intelligence documents of the CIA and the U.S. Department of State that characterize the development of the Soviet Union in various spheres. Introduced into the scientific discourse documents allow concluding on the prospects of using the heritage of the U.S. electronic archives in the scientific research, as well as assessing their veracity and reliability. The authors note that these materials contain valuable information on the U.S. policy with regards to the USSR, and analytical awareness on socioeconomic development of the Soviet Union during the 1970s – 1980s. It is established that in many cases publication of the foreign archival documents is often of tendentious nature.

Keywords: Cold War, sanctions, Afghanistan, digital archive, foreign relations, source studies analyses, sources, CIA, Soviet Union, détente

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.1.26621

Abstract: The article addresses the only study to date that is focused entirely on the iconography of full-figured Deesis and analyzes the theses presented in it.The author's attention is focused mainly on the theses regarding the models and their copies by icon painters; the images revealed through modifications; the extent of their prevalence and relationship of modifications and their “lists”. The author, stating his adherence to the textological research method, analyzes genealogical studies on particular icons and iconographic types. The author examines the conclusions regarding the icons of the iconostasis of the Kremlin Annunciation Cathedral as “the only archetype” for Russian Deesis icons, as well as the simplification of this “archetype” by subsequent icon painters, leading to the appearance of new imagery.The novelty of the proposed approach lies in the collation of icon images using the contours of their drawing, which allows to visually present the discussed images with all their details, as well as to compare a significant number of icons at the same time. As a result of the verification of the theses from the work under review, carried out using extensive additional material (the author considered more than one and a half hundred Deesis iconostases and their fragments), the following conclusions were made:1) the icons of the Annunciation Cathedral were not the iconographical source of Russian Deesis icons;2) in Russian icons there is no simplification of the drawing compared with the icons of the Annunciation iconostasis;3) the author did not observe any universal or compulsory copying;4) in some cases perhaps several models were used at the same time, which makes Deesis icons almost closed for genealogical research;5) the number and variety of image versions that are part of the Deesis far exceed those described in the literature.

Keywords: the Vasil'evsky Deesis Row, textual criticism, copying, archetype, the Blagoveschensky Deesis Row, stemma, icon-tracing, iconography, the Deesis, labor saving

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.5.36894

Abstract: This article analyzes the data described in the most ancient Russian scribal book – Derevskaya Pyatina of Novgorod Land compiled in the early 1499 based on the land documentation of 1495/96 – 1496/97. The object of this research is the records on seigniorial revenue collected from two volosts – Mikhailovskaya Smerda and Berezayskaya Smerda. The choice of these volosts for analysis is explained by accurate dating in scribal books, as well as by the fact that the income of all villages in these two volosts was calculated by general norm. The subject of this research is the correspondence of the description of revenue by villages to the results calculated by the scriber, as well as correlation between the amount of payment collected from the village and the economic indicators of this village. The novelty of this work lies in the analysis of statistical data taking into account that the scribal book of the XV century contains the records of different times: the composition of households and impost of villages were recorded at the time of the scribal description, while the revenue was calculated a little bit later. This explains certain discrepancies between the payment rate applied to the village and its economic characteristics. Special attention is given to verification of statistical record of scribal book for errors, such as miscount. The author suggests that the criterion for defining the rate of return for the village was not an abstract value – taxation in “obzha”, but the number of households that could be easily determined without special competency of the observer. This hypothesis can be tested only in terms of using the proposed methodology for analyzing other lands according to the scribal books of the XV – XVI centuries.

Keywords: payment rate, multilayered historical source, accounting history, source studies of the manuscript, seignorial income, the economy of a medieval village, Novgorod cadaster books, abnormal payment size, account errors, peasant budget

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.4.29619

Abstract: The research subject of this study is the documentary sources covering the process of integrating Crimean Tatar women into the socio-political, cultural and educational life of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in the 1920 and 1930s, preserved in the State Archive of the Republic of Crimea (SARC). The aim of this study is to draw an overview of the documentary and statistical sources located by the author in the SARC that contain information concerning the history of the integration of Crimean Tatar women in the socio-political and cultural-educational life of Crimea in the 1920s and 1930s. The author applies analysis, the descriptive method and synthesis in order to describe the given circle of documentary sources. The issue of integrating Crimean Muslims into the new Soviet society has remained little-studied. We do not know of any comprehensive studies examining the role of Crimean Tatar women in the socio-political, cultural and educational life of the peninsula, which is why the analysis of documents stored in the State Archive of the Republic of Crimea is so important. In the course of this research, the author was able to determine that this topic is well represented in unpublished documents preserved in this archive.

Keywords: Crimean ASSR, social and political life, cultural and educational life, Crimean tatar women, document, archival fund, State archive of the RC, SARC, archive, women

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.4.30189

Abstract: The research subject of this article is Russian religious education as a moderate direction in the broad ideological course of the Age of Enlightenment. The research object is the church sermons of the historian and bibliographer, member of one and a half dozen universities and academic scientific societies, Metropolitan Bishop of Kiev and Galicia Evgeny (Bolkhovitinov) (1767–1837) as a source for studying his enlightenment views. The aim of this article is to identify the most significant educational ideas and concepts that have been implemented in church sermons by a prominent representative of learned monasticism at the end of the 18th – first third of the 19th centuries. The study is based on the principles of historicism in their neoclassical interpretation. The author applied the method of source study analysis in combination with the historical and biographical method, which has revealed the ideological potential of this little-studied historical source - church sermons. The novelty of this research lies in its study of the whole body of church sermons by Metropolitan Evgeny (Bolkhovitinov). The author has classified 174 sermons on a thematic basis; based on archival information, which is introduced for the first time into scientific circulation, their dating has been partially established. Focusing on an enlightened listener, Metropolitan Evgeny addressed in his sermons the events and ideas relevant to his contemporaries. The author reveals the most characteristic methods of interpreting the Metropolitan Evgeny's educational concepts of rationalism, deism, natural religion, the theory of social contract, public good, equality. The author comes to the conclusion that Metropolitan Evgeny (Bolkhovitinov), as an activist for Russian religious enlightenment, promoted through his church sermons the dissemination of ideas and cultural models of the Enlightenment in the most appropriate moral interpretation for his listeners.

Keywords: historical source, Eugene Bolkhovitinov, the scholarly monasticism, church sermon, the Russian religious enlightenment, The Age of Enlightenment, rationalism, deism, natural religion, equality

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.3.40664

Abstract: The object of the study is the personal correspondence of Siberians who participated in the Great Patriotic War. The purpose of the work is to characterize the regional archival and museum collections of epistolary ego documents of the war period and to assess their information potential. The need to consider the problem in all its diversity has led to the use of such general scientific research methods as analysis and synthesis, logical method, descriptive method, classification method. Special research methods were also used: source studies, textual, problem-chronological, content analysis. Frontline letters are classified as a historical source. By means of textual analysis of epistolary documents of 1941-1945, the informational component of the letters of the Siberian soldiers was revealed. The problem-chronological method made it possible to identify the specifics of letters depending on the time of their writing. An array of epistolary sources of the period of the Great Patriotic War, not previously studied and not introduced into scientific circulation, consisting of 400 front-line letters of Siberian soldiers, is analyzed. As a result of the analysis of front-line correspondence, valuable information was revealed about various aspects of military everyday life: about living conditions in the rear, about front-line life, about the combat path of Siberian military units. The signs of the mental transformation of Siberian soldiers in military conditions are recorded and considered: a change in the perception of the enemy, a rethinking of the pre-war lifestyle, increased awareness of the value of the family, the formation of elements of religious consciousness. Conclusions are drawn about the significant informational value of the epistolary heritage for a comprehensive understanding of the events of the Great Patriotic Wars, about the need to intensify work on the introduction of ego documents into scientific circulation.

Keywords: military epistolaries, museum collections, wartime correspondence, the Great Patriotic War, archival funds, family correspondence, front-line letters, sources of personal origin, ego documents, epistolary complexes

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.1.34971

Abstract: The subject of this article is the project of the “Russian Historical and Cultural Reference Institute” proposed by the philologist and historian of the Russian booklore P. K. Simoni for consideration by the Academic Council of the Russian Historical Museum in May 1917. The October Revolution triggered the major changes in the infrastructure of historical science. Dozens of scientific and cultural establishments were restructured or ceased their activity, and dozens opened up. The project of P. K. Simoni was one of many in this series of transformations. It was developed by a practicing scholar in the humanities, who knew firsthand about all the difficulties of research work, which defines the uniqueness of this project. This fact makes this document a valuable historical source on the history of the Russian humanities in the late XIX – early XX centuries. Although the project of P. K. Simoni has been previously mentioned in the special literature, this is the first detailed analysis on the topic. The conducted analysis allowed revealing the challenge faced by scholars in the humanities of the late XIX – early XX centuries in their research activity, as well as outlining the possibilities for establishment of a new institution to resolve them. The author described the similar in their concept projects, which inspired P. K. Simoni in his work, as well as determined the similarities and differences of the proposed solutions. The conclusion was made that the Russian scientific community requires an institution that would solve the tasks of information support for the humanities, since the 1820s. Such need was formulated, clarified and modified over time, and yet does not fully meet the demands.

Keywords: scientific archive of the humanities, infrastructure of science, information support of science, history of science, museum collections, State Historical Museum, Pavel Konstantinovich Simoni, scientist archive, history of the humanities, humanities infrastructure

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.6.31223

Abstract: The article discusses the information potential of some of the sources discovered in the State Archives of the Altai Krai, specifically, their possible contribution to the study of income and property inequality among the population in the south of Western Siberia. The chronological framework of the article includes the second half of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. The authors note the high and constantly growing relevance of the topic related to the study of property inequality and differentiation by income in populations, including in the historical field. At the same time, the study of the regional aspects of this problem is also gaining importance, especially in such a large territory as Russia. Methodologically, the article focuses on archival search and archival heuristics. A fairly small number of studies, where the question of property inequality in the population of Siberia was discussed and resolved, determine the main research issues in the formation of a source base for this study. The article describes and evaluates, from the point of view of the information potential for the study of incomes and property inequality among the Siberian population in the designated chronological period, the sources stored in the State Archive of Altai Krai. The article's general conclusion is that, despite the difficulties in finding large amounts of data, the information potential of the sources allows us to pose and solve issues related to income and property inequality.

Keywords: wealth inequality, income, document, source, fund, archive, information potential, tax, money, enterprise

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.6.69335

Abstract: The subject of the study is the archival fund of A. A. Bashmakov and M. N. Bashmakova in the famous archive of Russian emigration - the Bakhmeteff Archive. Most of the documents consist of correspondence, manuscripts of essays, lectures, copies of publications by A. A. Bashmakov and M. N. Bashmakova created during their life in Paris (1924-1958). After the death of Maria Nikolaevna, Alexander Chekan, priest of the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Paris, donated their collection to the archive. The purpose of the article is to introduce the contents of this archival fund to Russian researchers, which is of significant interest to specialists in the history of emigration, foreign archival Rossica, and the history of the Civil War. The article presents documents which highlight Mr. and Mrs. Bashmakov's family ties, circle of contacts, scientific and social activities, publications. The author reviewed an extensive archival material, not introduced into scientific circulation before, gave an overview of it, noted a number of remarkable documents that provide new information about the activities of A. A. Bashmakov and his wife in pre-revolutionary Russia and in emigration, and their socio-political views. Despite the presence of several articles about A. A. Bashmakov, valuable archival materials remained outside the field of view of researchers, including his personal collection in the Bakhmeteff Archive. The materials of this archive, difficult to access for Russian researchers, have not been used before in scientific works. In addition to issues related to A. A. Bashmakov’s contacts with other émigré figures, the article is the first to study in detail the origin and content of the memoirs of his wife M. N. Bashmakova and daughter N. A. Bashmakova.

Keywords: foreign archival Rossica, legitimism, ethnography in the 1930s, Bashmakova Nadezhda Aleksandrovna, Bashmakov Vladimir Aleksandrovich, Bashmakova Maria Nikolaevna, memoirs, Russian emigration, Alexandre Baschmakoff (Alexander Bashmakov), Bakhmeteff Archive

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.3.19261

Abstract: The article presents new facts concerning the history behind the creation of Arseniy Sukhanov’s outstanding publicist work “the Debate with the Greeks on Faith”. The central research objects of the study are the recently found autograph of Sukhanov and the famous authorised manuscript of the Posolsky Prikaz as compared to the subsequent manuscript tradition. The author demonstrates that during the summer and autumn of 1650 the first three versions of this source were created, the last of which was circulated in December by Sukhanov himself. The article reveals the circumstances under which Sukhanov, having initiated an investigation into the case of the affront to the sovereign's honour, as a consequence was forced to reflect in the text the arguments of the debate with the Greeks, which formed the system of substantiating the primacy of the Russian Church and of tsardom in the Orthodox world. The author substantiates the conclusion that the significance of “the Debate” lay outside of the forthcoming Schism of the Church. The fate of Sukhanov and his ideas, which had a major impact on the formation of the 17th century ideology, confirms this conclusion.

Keywords: Debate with the Greeks, Patriarch of Jerusalem Paissy, Mount Athos, Russian Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Posolsky Prikaz, Moscow, Constantinople, New Rome, Arseny Sukhanov

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.3.67987

Keywords: Debate with the Greeks, Patriarch of Jerusalem Paissy, Mount Athos, Russian Orthodox Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Posolsky Prikaz, Moscow, Constantinople, New Rome, Arseny Sukhanov

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.4.16523

Abstract: The article’s focus is on the transfer history of the princess Z. N. Yusupova’s archive, as well as on the most valuable part of the Yusupov book treasures, originally held in the “Arkhangelshoe” estate and then moved to the Rumyantsev Museum in 1919–1920. The research, based on the documents in the Rumyantsev Museum Archive (today – the Russian State Library Archive), provides insight into the unique circle of specialists-bibliographers in the Rumyantsev Museum who during the first post-Revolution years worked to rescue Russian archives and libraries. The minute study of the preservation history of the intellectual heritage of the princes Yusupovs leads to the necessity of bringing back to memory the unjustly forgotten figures in Russian bibliography: V. D. Golitsyn, V. O. Nilender, A. S. Petrovsky and others. Information regarding these people, who not only collected and preserved the archival and book treasures of Russia, but also multiplied them, can be drawn from sources that contain little known historical facts. A comparative analysis of all referenced sources allows to better understand how the post-Revolutionary “spirit of the time” and the genesis of the socio-cultural phenomenon of the “little person” of the Soviet epoch transformed from the pre-Revolutionary Russian intellectual.

Keywords: heritage of princes the Yusupovs, Z.N. Yusupova, the estate “Arkhangelskoye”, the Rumyantsev Museum, 1919–20 years, N.S. Voskresenskaya, V.D. Golitsyn, V.O. Nilender, A.S. Petrovsky, L.I. Speranskaya

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.4.67315

Keywords: princes Yusupovs, Z. N. Yusupova, estate “Arkhangelskoye”, Rumyantsev Museum, Andrey Beliy, N. S. Voskresenskaya, V. D. Golitsyn, V. O. Nilender, A. S. Petrovsky, L. I. Speranskaya

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.6.17448

Abstract: This article focuses on the Greek narrative sources written during and about the Nicaean Empire (1204–1261). The principal authors of historical texts during this period were Niketas Choniates and Georgios Akropolites, as well as Michael Choniates and Nikolaos Mesarites. The article presents brief biographies about each author and notes the value of their contributions to the historical knowledge concerning the Nicaean Empire. These authors’ lives were closely connected to the events of the Fourth Crusade and the capture of Constantinople in 1204, and their works shed light on the subsequent events in Byzantine history – at Nicaea and in its subordinate territories. The main common attribute of the named authors is that they do not express a discontinuation of the Byzantine government and society after the loss of the ancient capital. On the contrary, their texts clearly reflect a historical continuity of the Nicaean government and ideology from the old Byzantine capital. The article considers the historical sources within the context of the writers and their biographies and the general socio-political situation of the period. The author also analyses the features of these sources and traces how they reflect the personal elements of their creators.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.6.67468

Keywords: Vizantiiskaya imperiya, Nikeiskaya imperiya, istoriopisanie, narrativnyi tekst, pervichnyi istochnik, biografiya, mirovozzrenie, ideologiya, obshchestvo

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.19176

Abstract: During the course of the last decades, metal and wooden rims of glass mirrors (more than 340 artefacts) have been found on the sites of different Ancient Rus towns. The depictions on these objects have been published in a separate volume in 2013. In 2015 during the ploughing of a field in the Kirov oblast, 20 km from the town of Slobodskoy, a metal rim with the image of an equestrian figure on the external side and with a floral border around it had been discovered. This design is identical to the design on one of the published decorated rims. This rim was handed to the author of this article by the local ethnographer O. L. Titov. The fabrication particularities and the nature of the image were studied visually, while the composition of the metal was identified on the ArtTAX unit (Röntgenanalysen-Technik). It was revealed that the Kirov rim, despite the similarity in images, is in structure and composition not identical to the rest of the metal rims. Contrary to them, this rim is made from lead and has flaws in its fabrication. This rim, found far away from the area of other similar rims, poses many questions regarding the place and methods of its making, as well as its introduction into the territory of Vyatka.

Keywords: rim, glass, ornament, equestrian figure, dating, X-ray fluorescence analysis, tin, lead, alloy, mirror

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.68403

Keywords: rim, glass, ornament, equestrian figure, dating, X-ray fluorescence analysis, tin, lead, alloy, mirror

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.19194

Abstract: The ceramics from Smolensk dating to the end of the 10th – first half of the 12th century have features that approximate them to the early wheel-made ceramics of Gnyozdovo, as well as to the later Ancient Rus ceramics. For the study of ceramic production techniques, a small collection of vessels from the named period found during excavations on the territory of Smolensk in 2013 was presented. A general description of this type of ceramics can be found in pertinent literature, however, the present focused study has helped to identify several more particuliarities of these ceramics’ production techniques. The technical study of ceramics was conducted according to the method of A. A. Bobrinsky within the framework of a historical-cultural approach. The authors examined the preparatory stage of pottery making, including the selection and preparation of raw materials and preparing of the body. The study has revealed that the predominant tradition was to use white clay that contained little amount of sand as accessory and to make the body according to the recipe: clay + broken stone + organic solution. The rare tradition of preparation of body has also been attested following the recipe: clay + sand + organic solution. The comparison of the discovered findings with the material from Gnyozdovo of the 10th – beginning of the 11th century has shown that in Gnyozdovo and Smolensk during certain stages of their history there had inhabited population groups that had similar pottery traditions. The analysis of the ceramics from Gnyozdovo of the 12th – beginning of the 13th century has revealed the diffusion of new traditions, above all of new traditions in making body following the recipe: clay + sand + organic solution.

Keywords: Smolensk, Gnyozdovo, Early Medieval ceramics, Ancient Rus ceramics, Ancient pottery, pottery making, historical-cultural approach, pottery making traditions, raw materials, body compositions

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.68404

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.19202

Abstract: An anthropomorphic figurine has been found in a mound from the Bronze Age located in the necropolis by the village of Zaozernoe on the periphery of the town of Yevpatoria in North-Western Crimea. The mound had been robbed in Antiquity which is why the figurine was found not in the burial itself, but in the strata between two Bronze Age burials. The figurine is a rather schematic representation of a female figure. Anthropomorphic sculptures are typical of many Bronze Age cultures, including the Trypillian culture. A collection of similar figurines was found in mound 6 of the burial site 26 in the village of Zelenyi Hai on the river Inhulets. The Zelenohai complex is dated to the period of late Trypillia and the figurines’ type has a lot in common with Trypillian anthropomorphic sculpture. The Zaozernoe figurine is almost completely identical to the figurines in the Zelenohai complex and consequently can be ascribed to the Trypillian culture – to its final phase. The discovery of the figurine in the mound of the necropolis by the village of Zaozernoe attests, it seems, to the links between the Crimean steppe and the cultures from the circle of Trypillia.

Keywords: Bronze Age, anthropomorphic sculpture, Trypillian culture, female figurine, Crimean steppe, Zaozernoe necropolis, Zelenohai complex, burial rite, “serezlievskiy” type, Inhul group

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.68405

Keywords: Bronze Age, anthropomorphic sculpture, Trypillian culture, female figurine, Crimean steppe, Zaozernoe necropolis, Zelenohai complex, burial rite, “serezlievskiy” type, Inhul group

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.20986

Abstract: One of the most important questions in the history of the Ancient Rus town is craftsmanship. Craft formed the base of the economic life of a village, and it was the most important defining feature differentiating the Medieval town from other forms of settlement. Through the long period of studying Great Novgorod and due to the large-scale archaeological excavations conducted there, a unique collection of Ancient antiquities has been assembled. In this collection a particular place is taken by a set of metal tools used for production, including metalwork. These tools are a unique source for the study of Medieval blacksmithing. The tools’ classification and dating has been carried out on the basis of the existing typologies, developed by B. A. Kolchin and N. V. Ryndina, as well as with the input of the data from the stratification of Medieval cultural strata and the method of dendrochronology. Additionally, Medieval book miniatures were also used for the identification of many tools, as well as ethnographic material, contemporaneous blacksmith manuals and tool compendiums. As a result of the conducted analysis, 221 objects have been revealed that pertain to metalworking tools. These objects were then divided into ten application groups: supporting, impacting, chopping, cutting, underlying, gripping, clamping, for applying decoration, shaping and auxiliary. The chronological periods of use for one or another group of instruments have also been identified. Due to these discoveries it has become possible to compose a detailed picture of the set-up and equipping of production workshops during various stages of the town’s development.

Keywords: Medieval Novgorod, production, metalworking, blacksmithing, jewelry craft, metal tools, technical operations, classification, typology, chronology

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.6.68406