History magazine - researches - rubric History of ethnicities, peoples, nations

Abstract: The article focuses on language conflicts in Switzerland, the main factors behind them and how they were resolved. Despite having four official languages, Switzerland is comprised mainly of territories with one official language with only a small number of bilingual cantons and communes. The main conflicts occurred between the French- and German-speaking populations, but the article also examines the situation concerning the Italian and Romansh languages. By analyzing the term Röstigraben, the Franco-German conflicts in the cantons of Bern, Jura, Fribourg and Valais, as well as the Italian and Romansh parts of Switzerland’s linguistic diversity, the author has singled out the common characteristics of these conflicts and the principal means of their resolutions. The conclusions are the following: the language conflicts in Switzerland always had political or socio-economic reasons. Among the resolutions implemented, the most significant are the referendums for self-determination, the quotas of representation prescribed by the law, the principle of territoriality, and federal subsidies. A leading role was played by the self-identification of the Swiss as citizens of a multi-lingual state, including the constant support of the Italian and Romansh languages. The article’s novelty lies in its comprehensive description and analysis of the history and modern state of Switzerland's linguistic diversity on the federal and cantonal levels.

Keywords: language policy, language legislation, Switzerland, minorities, language law, cantons, polylingualism, principle of territoriality, language conflicts, multilingualism

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.4.23300

Abstract: The subject of this research is one aspect of the economic activity of the Armenian community in Russian Turkestan, namely, the development of the fishing and salt industries. The Armenian community in Central Asia was established following the entry of this region into the Russian Empire and, despite its small number of members, became very influential in the economic sphere there. The greater part of the Armenian population was concentrated in the Transcaspian region of the Turkestan territory and it was precisely there that they played a key role in the most diverse spheres of economic activity. The main methods of research applied in this research, apart from general scientific ones, are the historical-comparative, historical-typological and historical-systematic methods, which allow to study the economic activity of the Armenians in Central Asia in its evolution, while considering the multitude of factors that influenced it. On the basis of a wide range of sources, the article analyzes for the first time in scientific research the role of the Armenian community in the conception and formation of the fishing and salt industries in the Transcaspian regions of Russian Turkestan. Armenian industrialists and merchants organized in the Transcaspian region commercial fishing and a salt industry, which became a very profitable activity for the local population as well. Despite its small population, the Armenian community continued to play a key role in these industries up to the Russian Revolution.

Keywords: Central Asia, fishing cooperatives, salt industry, fishing companies, Russian Turkestan, Russian policy of Turkestan, Transcaspian region, fishing industry, Turkestanskiy krai, Armenian community of Turkestan

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2018.4.26944

Abstract: The research subject of this article is the policy methods of the Ottoman Empire (in particular, the gift of Pishkesh) in the Western Caucasus in the first third of the 19th century. In the context of the existing fears associated with the loss of the region, the Ottoman Empire introduced various new methods to its policy. The gift of Piskesha (gift, bribe) was used in earlier periods, but in the first third of the 19th century it was applied in full scale. The Ottomans through all means tried to retain under their influence the numerous ethnic groups of the Western Caucasus, using the gift-giving practice on both the representatives of the upper class (Princes, nobles), as well as on prisoners and peasants. Upon writing this article, the author analyzed and generalized the policy methods of the Ottoman Empire in the Western Caucasus. Upon translating the archive document, the author used the main theoretical and practical methods of historical research. The novelty of this research lies in its study of the Ottoman Empire's policy method of the gift of Pishkesh, which in both Russian and foreign historiographies has practically not been examined. The previously unpublished archival document from the Ottoman archive of the Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey is introduced into scientific circulation for the first time, in which the author found valuable information about the named gift-giving practice.

Keywords: The Black sea, Trabzon, the politics of the Ottoman Empire, Anapa, The Western Caucasus, Pishkesh, archive document, the peoples of the Western Caucasus, inventory, the Ottoman language

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.3.32713

Abstract: The research subject of this article is the reasons behind the increase in social problems in American cities, examined through the prism of psychological factors. The author chose as the main example the city of New York, which at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries experienced rapid urbanization and was one of the first cities to face the growth of social deviations in a rapidly changing urban environment. Additionally, the author is particularly interested in the destructive behavior of the “new” citizens in the context of national-cultural specifics. In order to study this phenomenon, the author applied an interdisciplinary approach, using the experience of related sciences, such as sociology and psychology. The author's main conclusion is that the difficulties associated with the fast adaptation of people to new living conditions often became a determining factor in pushing the poor New York population, which mainly consisted of immigrants, to antisocial behavior, which was expressed not only in addiction to drugs and alcohol, but also drove to violations of the city's laws.

Keywords: immigration, destructive behaviour, social problems, New York City, USA, urbanization, criminality, poverty, over-population, metropolis

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2022.4.38395

Abstract: The subject of this research is history of parishes in the Pskov-Pechorsky Region related with Seto folk. Historical area of this small Finno-Ugric ethnic group embraces modern territory of the Pechorsky District and south-eastern parts of Estonia. Seto are Orthodox Christians and Russians call them poluvertsi (half-believers). Seto culture is usually seen in isolation from established parish system in the borderland of the Pskov-Pechorsky Region and Estonia. The author of article aims to trace principal changes of Seto church life in conditions of constantly shifting state affiliation and political regimes from late XIX century to present time. The source base of research are press materials, published testimonies of eyewitnesses, documents of the State Archive of Pskov Oblast (GAPO) and information gathered by author in ethnographic expeditions of 2007-2017. The research applies historical-comparative and ethnographic methods. The article reveals involvement of Seto in parish life at different stages of their history. Due to their ignorance of Russian language, they couldn’t participate consciously in church services and were involved in Estonian language environment in the period of their incorporation in the Estonian Republic in 1920-1940s. In Soviet period they insisted on their right for independent “Estonian” parish. Today in Russia Seto are included in Russian-speaking church environment and in Estonia parish life. The article emphasizes the role of parish clergymen in establishment of Seto parishes. It puts in academic researches new data about the Soviet period of the Pskov Eparchy i.e. the practice of bilingual Church services in mixed Russian-Estonian parishes. Finally author comes to conclusion about construction of Seto ethno-confessional identity in dependence of political interests of Russia and Estonia in XX-XXI cc. which eventually influenced their culture.

Keywords: language policy, religious identity, parish life, Orthodox Christianity, Varvarinsky Church, Estonian Republic, Pskov Oblast, Pechorsky District, half-believers, seto

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.5.36864

Abstract: Reindeer herding is inextricably associated with the economic practice of Sami people. The subject of this research is the reindeer herding among Sami population of Kolsky Uyezd in the late XVIII century. The object of this research is the statistical reports of 1764, 1784, and 1785. The statistical sources of various periods are introduced into the scientific discourse, which allows analyzing such topics as demography, physical-geographical peculiarities of the territory, economic activity, and everyday life of the population, as well as reconstructing the state of reindeer herding among Sami people of Kolsky Uyezd during the period under study, and comparing the acquired results with the data for the XIX century. The sources also provide information on reindeer herding among Russian population; therefore, the article aims to determine the importance of this economic sector outside the Sami society. The scientific novelty is defined by the absence of works dedicated to reindeer herding among Sami people of Kolsky Uyezd for the period under review. The main conclusions are as follows: Sami population of Kolsky Uyezd of the late XVII century cannot be considered as traditional reindeer herders, as it was rather a small-scale cattle farm, fulfilling mostly food and transportation functions; the number of reindeer in the Sami pogosts was uneven; increase in the number of reindeer was noticed in the second half of the XVIII century, which testifies to the growing role of this economic sector (however, in the eastern part of the Kola Peninsula alone); in the economy of the Russian population, reindeer herding performed a support function.

Keywords: statistical statements, reindeer, vezha, pogost, Sami, reindeer husbandry, Kola uyezd, Arkhangelsk province, indigenous peoples, traditional branches of the economy

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.6.68855

Abstract: The subject of the study is a composite Manchu-Mongol bow identified and studied in detail during direct inspection from the collections of the Ethnographic Museum of the Peoples of Transbaikalia (Ulan-Ude). Based on a study of its morphological and design features, during a comparative analysis with similar products of imported and Buryat production, it was revealed that the item was redesigned during its use. Examples of this kind are quite rare and allow, based on the study of specific products, to draw conclusions about the possible reasons and methods for rearranging weapons to change their characteristics. Analysis of the context of application can significantly complement the understanding of this process. The novelty of the research is associated with the introduction into scientific circulation of a previously unpublished fully preserved composite bow. At the moment, such work is rare in russian weapons science. The analysis of specific weapons is important in the context of studying the military art of the peoples of Siberia and Central Asia, since in order to compile the most correct idea on this issue, a comprehensive study of the entire array of sources is necessary. An important component of the study was the analysis of the redesigned elements, and their interpretation is given. Based on a number of reasons, most likely the owner was trying to adapt the item to stable shooting with lighter arrows and to make it easier to care for. It is possible that some damage was repaired in this way. As a result of the refit the morphology and metrics of the functional zones of the product are closest to composite bows made in Transbaikalia.

Keywords: weapon refit, weapons, museums, Manchus, composite bow, Transbaikalia, Buryats, horn plates, competitions, hunting

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.3.33099

Abstract: The subject of this research is the factors that led to formation of a negative image of “new” immigration and the occurrence of anti-immigrant moods in the United States in the last decades of the XIX – beginning of the XX centuries. The author examines the social interaction processes between the local Anglo-Saxon population and the representatives of the so-called “new” immigration from Asia and South-Eastern Europe, which replaced the traditional labor immigration from Western and Northern Europe. Special attention is given to studying the origins of hostility and xenophobia towards migrants manifested in different strata of US society – the representatives of working and middle class, academic and cultural intelligentsia, and political elite. The author concludes that all social classes showed antagonism towards the “new” immigration. Although, the rhetoric on immigration varied depending on affiliation to one or another social segment. Working and middle class were concerned about competition on the job marker, social tension and nonconformity of immigrants to the image of the “ideal American”; while the ruling elites adhered to the ingrained in public discourse idea of Anglo-Saxon supremacy, which later on became the foundation for restrictionist policy towards migrants who were trying to get established in their land.

Keywords: USA, restrictionism, национализм, nativism, social problems, image, social stereotypes, xenophobia, new immigrants, Immigration

Abstract: the article is devoted to the history of Russian-Greek relations during the period of Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853–1856. On the example of the little-know episode (visit of the Greek delegation headed by the Hrisovery A. in St. Petersburg in winter of 1854) the author shows the official position of Russia in the question of the Christian people and national liberation movement in the Balkans. The article provides previously unknown documents about the preparation of the Greek revolt in Epirus, Thessaly and Macedonia (1854).

Keywords: history, Crimean (Eastern) War, the Greco-Russian “Thraco-Bulgarian-Serbian Union”, “The Fellowship of the Annunciation”.

Abstract: The article analyzes the ideas of a German-Roman world of the Byzantine chronicler of the VI century Ioannes Malals, and the anonymous author of “Paschal Chronicle” in the VII century. Basic models of the interpretation of the history of the main Germanic tribes (Goth, Vandals, Franks, Herulians) and their role in the history of the Roman Empire, as presented in the historical writings, are represented. The author also analyzes the characteristics of representation f the leading characters of the German-Roman history in the early Byzantine chronicles, especially of Theodoric the Great as a keeper of an idea of the Germanized Roman Empire.

Keywords: history, early Byzantium, chronicle, semeiotic method of analysis, Ioannes Malals, “Easter chromicle”, Teutons, vandals, the Visigoth, the Ostrogoth.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.6.24909

Abstract: The territory of the Belarusian-Polish borderland during the first half of the 20th century was the arena of a conflict between two important political and cultural centers — the USSR and Poland, that fought for supremacy in Eastern Europe and dominance on the territory of Belarus. Within the framework of this conflict, interethnic relations developed between the Poles and the Belarusians, in particular, on the territory of Bialystok, Brest, Grodno and Western Polesia. The subject of this study is such aspects of the relations between the two peoples as identification by language. One of the most important manifestations of this confrontation was the status of the Belarusian language, as well as its codification. In the period under study, there were regional variants of the Belarusian language, any of which could potentially be taken as the basis for the creation of the grammar of the literary language, which is why the normativization of this language became one of the collision fields of the two historical centers towards which the region's population gravitated — Moscow and Warsaw. The article's main research method is the comparative method, which has allowed to uncover the particularities of the language policies of the Soviet power and the Polish administration, including the influence of their underground agencies during the years of the war on the ethnic conflict. The novelty of this article lies in its attempt to move away from the common in works of Polish, Belarusian and Soviet scholars presentation of the total opposition (based on undeniable historical facts and the logic of state- and nation- building in the 20th century) of the two ethnic communities of the region: the Poles and the Belarusians, in favor of illuminating the particular regional "local" identity, which never ceased to form despite the objective existence of the Belarusian-Polish conflict.

Keywords: Poland, assimilation, language, national identity, regional identity, nationalism, interethnic relations, Russian world, Belarusia, History of the USSR

Abstract: this article analyzes the evidence of old Russian (Primary Chronicle), Byzantine, Latin and Arabic sources of IX-X centuries mentioning ethnonyms “Russia” and “Khagan” of Russians. The focus is on containment of “Russia” and the evolution of this concept from ethnicity to social meaning, as well as the historiographical representation of the “Russian khaganate” in IX century (the most probable location of which is the Middle Dnieper).

Keywords: history, Russia, Varangian, Slavs, Khagan, Khaganate, the Khazars, the record, title, localization.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.2.40412

Abstract: The study of the problem of the population of the Halaf culture in the 6th millennium BC in the territory of the North-Eastern Syria is conducted for the first time in order to study the demographic situation of this region in the Late Neolithic. The statistical approach in paleodemographic reconstruction is the basis of the scientific procedure, because it’s source are the materials of the settlements. It also includes methods used in both Russian and foreign archeology. The basis was taken as the average population density, proposed by foreign anthropologists for the Neolithic in the Eastern Mediterranean, which was compared with the indicators of the southern part of Western Europe and Southwestern Iran. According to the calculations, 30-35 thousand people lived in the territory of northeast Syria during Halaf culture. These results were verified by the method of C. Reed and R. Braidwood, using the method of population density per settlement area by C. Renfrew as well as an indicator of natural annual population growth. This verification confirmed the obtained quantitative indicators of the Khalaf population in Eastern Euphrates. A variant of determining the population of the Halaf settlement of Sabi Abyad I by the residential buildings of the “Burnt Village”, which makes up 1/10 of the area of the monument, is proposed. This result can be an independent baseline for the reconstruction of the paleodemographic characteristics of the Late Neolithic culture of Mesopotamia. Conclusion based on the obtained paleodemographic data: Despite the high infant mortality, Khalaf society is characterised as developing. For comparison, this article presents the demographic indicators of the modern Syrian Arab Republic

Keywords: archaeology, settlements, methods, Syria, Eastern Euphrates, Mesopotamia, paleodemography, Halaf culture, Neolithic, population size

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.6.69024

Abstract: The article discusses the main sources of supply of composite bows to the Buryats. In the works of domestic researchers, starting from the 18th century, individual theses appear on the local and imported nature of objects, their characteristics and differences are mentioned, and the manufacturing process is described, but these data have not been generalized to date. The subject of the study is a complex of written, material and pictorial sources containing information about the place and time of manufacture of composite bows used by Buryat archers. The article analyzes data from written sources and published works of specialists on the topic. The data is compared with identified composite bows from museum and private collections collected in the territory of Buryat residence or received from Buryat archers, as well as with a series of published images. As a result of the analysis, it was possible to identify and prove the existence of two sources of supply of composite bows to Buryat archers: imports and local production. Imported products are represented by various variants of the “Manchu-Mongolian” tradition, differing in the general ideas of the craftsmen about morphology, sizes and basic manufacturing techniques; Bright decor was used for decoration. The most common were locally made compound bows. Despite some differences, locally produced items are fundamentally different from imported ones in terms of morphometric features, which confirms that the Buryats have a local, distinctive culture of shooting and making composite bows.

Keywords: buryats, Cisbaikalia, Transbaikalia, local production, import, sources of supply, composite bow, written sources, production tradition, weapon

Abstract: The article is devoted to the role of the extremist mass media in the orchestration and starting of the Rwanda genocide of 1994. The author analyzes the contents of the publication in the journal “Kanguru” and the radio programs of the “Evolution of title-vicegeral system in the second half of the XVII – early XVIII century”. The author shows the main topics and skills of the extremist propaganda, shows the main objects of information discrediting (tutsi, Rwanda patriotic front, moderate opposition, the UN peace-keepers). The author shows the links of the “Kanguru” and the OTHFRT with the organizations and the groupings of the leading regime of the president Habyarimana (militarily intelligence, the parties of the National Republican Movement for Democracy and Development and the Coalition for the Protection of the Republic, “Akazu”, AMASASU), the level of their influence on the Rwandan society. The author then comes to the conclusion that the extremist mass media controlled a considerable share of information space of the state and they actively facilitated the growth of inter-ethnical tensity, he also considers that the ideological preparations for the genocide took place in 1991–1994, it was conscious, consistent, aimed and large-scaled with growing intensity.

Keywords: history, genocide, Rwanda, mass media, “Kanguru”, “One Thousand Hills Free Radio and Television”, Tutsi, Hutu, Hutu 10 Commandments, Habyarimana

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2018.3.24750

Abstract: The subject of this article are the issues of the ideological support for the conflict situation in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1989-1991. The author set before himself the goal of identifying the main directions and aspects of the activities of the national movements in the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic in the period of the acute escalation of ethnopolitical tensions. On the basis of legislative acts issued by the leadership of the USSR, of program documents of the Abkhaz, Georgian and Ossetian national movements, as well as of statistical data, the author dedicates attention to the examination of the situation without touching upon the issues of the Abkhaz and Ossetian wars. The methodological basis of this study is constructed on the comparative-historical approach, within the framework of which the author tries to understand what was the ideological motive in the opposition of the principal counterparts of the conflict situation. The study's conclusion is that at the heart of the national rhetoric of the representatives of the opposition movement in Georgia lay the idea of the redistribution of the political and economic powers of the republic which affected the interests that were then part of Soviet Georgia, national autonomies, and in particular the Abkhaz and Ossetian autonomies. The fears evoked by the activities of the Georgian opposition prompted representatives of the cultural and political intelligentsia of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic and South Ossetian Autonomous Oblast to join the opposition, advocating the maintenance of national sovereignty. The study's contribution to this topic is the possibility of using the materials presented in this article in the development of courses in the history of the countries of the Russian near abroad, as well as the history of Georgia and the history of these unrecognized republics. The scientific novelty of this study lies in its examination of the history of the ideology of national movements in the late period of the USSR, which has not been sufficiently represented in Russian historiography.

Keywords: national question, autonomous republic, USSR, ethnopolitics, South Ossetia, ideology, self-determination, nationalism, Georgia, Abkhazia

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.1.15559

Abstract: The article examines the significant, but little studied in Russian historiography problem of the methods used by the rulers of Old Rus’ in concluding treaties with their Eastern neighbours. In the first place, this topic pertains to the Polovtsy and Volga-Bulgars, who were the immediate neighbours of the North-Eastern and South-Eastern principalities in the 11th–12th centuries. Based on examples, the author shows that the most basic method was the reinforcement of friendly pacts by the arrangement of marriage unions between the elites of both sides. The author substantiates the theory that the very term “marriage” (brak), translatable as “union” (from “birak” – “joining”, “combination”), is taken from the Turkish language and it originally referred to princely matrimony with a wife precisely from the Cuman people. The Bulgarian relations with the steppe were rather complicated, which is confirmed by scholars from Tatarstan and archaeological material. Upon the discovery of Khan burial vaults in the ancient capital of Volga-Bulgaria, Mordovian and Mari women were found buried there, wives of Bulgarian dignitaries. Based on the regulations of the civic laws of the Medieval era, it can be asserted with certitude that they could only have become the wives of Bulgarian elites through the conclusion of mutually advantageous unions. Russian chronicles recorded information of similar agreements between the Russian and Bulgarian elites.

Keywords: Polovtsian steppe, Rus’, Volga-Kama Bulgaria, prince, Medieval elite, Polovtsy, matrimony, marriage, Russian chronicles, family law

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.2.21961

Abstract: The article examines the first scientific-publicist encyclopedic work, written by P.-Ch. Leveque and titled "the History of the different peoples, subordinated to Russia", which describes the nationalities living in the Russian Empire during the 18th century. By studying the scientific legacy of P.-Ch. Leveque, as well as relying on the scientific data and publications of his contemporaries (G. F. Miller, A. F. Bushing and others), the authors were able to obtain precise and specific information regarding the ethno-cultural structure of the world's largest nation – the Russian Empire, during the studied period. The article uses the historical-systematic method, directed at the examination of the Russo-European cultural interaction during the 18th century, specifically, through the prism of the work of one of the brightest representatives of the Enlightenment – the scholar P.-Ch. Leveque. The authors of the research come to the conclusion that the "Encyclopedia" of P.-Ch. Leveque is the first work in the French language that presents a complete image of Russia as a multinational state. As a complement and extension of the multi-volume "the History of Russia" by Leveque, "the History of the different peoples, subordinated to Russia" allows to clarify and deepen our understanding of the origins of the Russian-European cultural and scientific cooperation.

Keywords: Pierre Charle Levesque, Enlightenment period, 18th century, encyclopedia, cultural interaction, multinational state, peoples of Russia, ethnography, Europe, Russia

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.1.66606

Keywords: Polovtsian steppe, Rus’, Volga-Kama Bulgaria, prince, Medieval elite, Polovtsy, matrimony, marriage, Russian chronicles, family law

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.1.35083

Abstract: This article is first to examine one of the lists of chronicle that goes under the code name “The Chronicle of the Exodus of the ancestors of the tribe Nahci from the Settlement of Nahcivan" (N. S. Semenov). Iznaur Nesserhoev – scribe of the list – names the chronicle “Tarikh Chachan”, which is taken as the basis in this article. H. U. Basnukaev translated the text of this list of manuscript; Z. A. Tesaev compiled the commentaries on the translation and conducted scientific research relying on analysis of the contents of manuscript and its comparison with other lists. The author carries out a comparative analysis between this version of “Tarikh Chachan” and the previously published materials (N. Semenov, P. Takhnaeva, A. Salgiriev, etc.) is carried out. Publication of the translation and examination of the contents of the manuscript “Tarikh Chachan” are performed for the first time. This article reveals the similarities, discrepancies and new records on the content of a number of other lists of the chronicle under review. The examined text of “Tarikh Chachan” indicated the new, previously unpublished details in the narrative dedicated to the personalities of the Kalmyk Khan – Nowruz Khan along with other Caucasian rulers of Kakhar and Surakat. The author observes the identity of the introductory part of the text and the main plotline in the lists of the aformentioned authors (N. Semenov, P. Takhnaeva, A. Salgiriev, etc.). The conclusion is made that this list of the chronicles "Tarikh of Chachan" is an additional source on the medieval history of the North Caucasus.

Keywords: Argvani, Surak, Kahar, Navruz, Iznaur Nesserhoev, Chechens, Nakhchuvan, Sham, Nashkha, Dagestan

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2018.6.28262

Abstract: The subject of this research is the historical experience of organizing small-scale credit institutions in pre-Revolutionary Yakutia. On the basis of documentary archival sources, the author undertook an analysis of the activity of the loan office of the Yakuts, created in 1881 under the Yakutsk regional administration. The author examines the conditions and legal framework for the work of the loan offices, the forms of their structure, the origins of creating public capital, and the size and conditions for issuing loans. Particular attention is paid to the evolutionary changes in the organizational structure of loan offices, reflected in the size of loans, the terms of lending, and the expansion of services provided by loan offices. The general scientific methods form the methodological basis of this study, the main methods of which are historicism and objectivity in the assessments and conclusions of the author. The main conclusions of the study are the following: - at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries, the Yakutsk regional government directed its efforts to create a unified and centralized management system of credit institutions;- the system of small credit institutions, established by the administration, increased the availability of loans for the population and accelerated the development of goods-money relations in the Yakutsk region.

Keywords: commodity-money relations, loan office of the Yakuts, economy of Yakutia, history of Yakutia, small loan, savings and loan fund, rural auxiliary box office, loan office, usury, credit policy

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.2.30953

Abstract: The article discusses the issues related to the implementation of the Francophone policy in African and Asian countries. The author examines France's methods of cooperating with its former colonies; which countries received more attention; why specifically education played an important role in the implementation of the Francophone policy, and how did the financial support for this field change during the presidency of Charles de Gaulle. In the presented work, the policy of Francophonie is understood as the totality of France’s actions towards creating privileged political and economic ties with foreign states through the means of the French language and culture.In accordance with the latest methodological developments, foreign cultural policy is viewed as a group of measures developed and implemented by a state on an external level in order to promote national culture and language. The perception of the problems of foreign cultural policy was significantly influenced by the concept of "soft power" elaborated by political scientist J. Naya. This study applied several research methods: the system analysis method and the comparative analysis method. Topics related to the political implementation of Francophonie are little studied in Russian historiography. The article uses documents from the archives of the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs previously unfamiliar to the general public. The implementation of the Francophone policy in the countries of Asia and Africa in 1958-1969 resulted in the extensive cultural, economic and political cooperation between France and its former colonies. Despite the numerous successes in implementing the Francophone policy, by 1969, the government of the Fifth Republic had failed to restore the French cultural influence on the territories that had gained independence from France in a non-peaceful way.

Keywords: France, soft power, decolonization, french colonial system, education, foreign cultural policy, de Gaulle, francophonie, African states, Asian states

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.6.36980

Abstract: The subject of this research is the correlation between the policy of neocolonialism and Francophonie in the context of foreign cultural strategy of France in the 1960s. Decolonization forced France to relinquish direct colonial rule and shift towards the policy of “cooperation” on the basis of bilateral agreements with the developing countries, which regulated intergovernmental relations in various spheres. The idea of the universality of French language and cultural values underlied the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation established in 1970. A crucial role in its establishment was played by the political leaders of African countries, who sought benefit from cooperation with France in terms of the development of young sovereign states. Despite this fact, the activity of Francophonie was the object of criticism, and by some researchers, considered a version of French post-colonialism. Analysis is conducted on different interpretations and approaches towards the terms “neo-colonialism” and “Francophonie”. The article employs the unpublished archival documents of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of France, which determines the scientific novelty. The authors conclude that the equality sign between neo-colonialism and Francophonie seems unreasoned, since the latter has improved the educational, cultural, scientific and technical standard of living in the young sovereign states, contributed to the establishment of their political and administrative and increase of authority on the world stage. The participation of the developing countries in the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation and the leaders of the Western world – France and Canada – consolidated the authority and broadened the experience of the political elite of the third world countries. At the same time, there is no denying that de Gaulle sought to increase the international prestige of the Fifth Republic by strengthening the positions of France in the Francophone world.

Keywords: developing countries, ACCT, de Gaulle, foreign cultural policy, neocolonialism, francophonie, France, soft power, decolonisation, international relations

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2020.2.32200

Abstract: The research object of this study is the changes in the number of people belonging to the Russian-speaking diaspora in California. As the research subject, the author chose the social composition of migrants in the first pre-revolutionary wave of emigration to this region. The author also addresses the issue of the influence of the Russian colonization in the northwestern part of the American continent in the 18th-19th centuries on the process of forming a diaspora in California. Of particular importance to this study are the official statistics from the Immigration Commission and the United States Census Bureau. These sources are analyzed and compared with the findings presented in pre-revolutionary and modern Russian historiography. The methodological basis of this study and the provisions put forward in this work are the principle of historicism, the comparative historical method and the systematic approach. The author used materials from consular reports and official notes found in the collections of the Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire. The study's main findings are the thesis of the multi-ethnic nature of the California pre-revolutionary diaspora. The social composition and size of the community at each stage of its formation were also established.

Keywords: Alaska, ethnic, Russian-speaking, San-Francisco, emigrant, diaspora, California, population, community, census

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.1.21272

Abstract: The article deals with the so-called indigenization policy, initiated by the 12th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1923, which provided support for the self-government, language and culture of national minorities. It is considered on the concrete example of the Russian North-West. The unfolding of this policy under the influence of a number of factors, in nature both domestic and external political, occurred in the middle–the second half of the 1930s. For the first time a detailed study of the features of the indigenization policies in this region of the country is offered. The relevance of this kind of research is related to the fact that national issues did not lose their importance in contemporary Russia and that the past experiences of national policy, its achievements, as well as failures must be taken into account in the formation of the current national policy. In this work the author applied the empirical methods of knowledge (classification, analysis), methods of concrete sociological analysis, scientific methods of historical research (statistical, historical and descriptive, retrospective, historical and comparative).

Keywords: North-West, interethnic relations, national policy, indigenization, local self-government, nationalism, national minorities, Finland, national staff, national written language

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2017.1.68601

Keywords: North-West, interethnic relations, national policy, indigenization, local self-government, nationalism, national minorities, Finland, national staff, national written language

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2018.5.27261

Abstract: The research subject of this article is the process of integrating the population of Alaska into American society after the conclusion of the territory's cession deal between Russia and the United States. As the research object, the author chose the school system in Alaska after 1867, as well as the missionary work of Protestant denominations. Additionally, the work touches upon the issue of preserving the Russian presence in the region. The author gives an estimated number of the Russian population in Alaska after 1867 and provides a description of the main centers of concentration of Russian culture in the region. The methodological base of this research and the provisions put forward in this work were founded on the principle of historicism, the comparative historical method, and the systematic approach. The scientific novelty of the article's research consists in using English-language sources on this topic that have not been previously used in Russian historiography. The author's main conclusions are that the assimilation of the Russian-speaking and indigenous populations in Alaska took place unevenly, preserving remnants of centers of Russian culture. Furthermore, the US Congress considered that a key obstacle to the Americanization process of the region was the continuation of the activities of Russian-speaking church-parochial schools.

Keywords: missionary work, Sheldon Jackson, schools, Alaska, Russian population, americanization, assimilation, Ninilchik, native peoples, education

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.2.40520

Abstract: The object of research of the presented article is the health care system of colonial Kenya (1890-1950-ies). The subject of study is the state of health of the bulk of the native population, the principles of the colony's medical service, the management of hospitals and first aid stations, sanitary and preventive measures. The author reviewed the spread of various kinds of infections and tropical diseases, as well as ways to combat them. Special attention is paid to the contribution of South Asians to the development of rural and private medicine. The methodological basis of the work is the concrete historical and problem-chronological approaches combined with synthesis and comparative analysis. The British authorities have made significant progress in this area, although in conditions of limited resources, priority was given to caring for European settlers. By the turn of the 1950s and 1960s, plague, smallpox, cholera, onchocerciasis, yellow fever and recurrent typhus were almost completely eradicated, malaria and sleeping sickness were localized. Vaccination has become the norm for the indigenous population, the risks of neonatal tetanus and polio have been reduced. The process of training indigenous personnel has been established in specialized training centers. The accumulated basis was subsequently used by the leadership of independent Kenya for the further development of this sphere.

Keywords: segregation, self-government, colonialism, healthcare, infections, diseases, medicine, migration, Great Britain, Kenya

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2022.6.39428

Abstract: The article is dedicated to the study of the Jewish lobby and its influence on the U.S. foreign policy decision-making in 1952-1954. The methods applied by Jewish lobbyists to defend the interests of Israel in the U.S. administration and Congress during the stated period are revealed. The assessment of the effectiveness of these methods as the ruling party changed was carried out. The research starting point is 1952, when the U.S. presidential election took place, D. Eisenhower won and that created the need for the Jewish lobby to adapt itself to the new administration. The upper research limit was 1954, a period when relations between the countries cooled down because of the desire of the U.S. to establish a dialogue with Arab states, as well as the aggressive foreign policy of Israel itself. The article analyzes the materials of the State Archive of Israel, which were not previously used by Russian historians in the study of this topic. Conclusions are drawn that in 1952-1954 the Jewish lobby only entered the stage of its consolidation as response to the changes in the US foreign policy agenda. Previously, it was represented by disparate organizations, in which only the leaders, due to common interests, used a single approach to lobbying. The Israeli government used the lobby for informal contact with the American side in case of conflict situations with Arab countries, as well as to defend its interests in matters related to financial and military assistance provided by United States. The emerging crisis in relations between Israel and United States in 1954 showed that under the administration of D. Eisenhower the Jewish lobby had to transform the lobbying mechanism to effectively demonstrate that cooperation with Israel was more in line with US foreign policy interests in the region.

Keywords: Qibya operation, Jewish community, Zionist organizations of the U.S., Arab-Israeli conflict, military assistance to Israel, financial assistance to Israel, Middle East, U.S.-Israeli relations, Israel lobby, Jewish lobby

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.2.40547

Abstract: The subject of this study is the motives of the myth of creation from an egg among Mari and Udmurts. Until now, the myth of the world creation from an egg (MCE) has been noted in the tradition of the Baltic-Finnish peoples, as well as the Mordvins and Komi. An analysis of Mari cosmogonic myths and folk songs reveals two mythological motives related to MCE: 1) a cuckoo builds a nest on an oak tree with six branches; 2) a duck (goose) breeds five, six, seven, twelve chicks right on the water (the top of the grass growing in the river middle). The main conclusions of the study are the following provisions. The image of a duck of the Eastern Mari is not so popular and is replaced by the images of a cuckoo and a swan. A wagtail and an ermine are also mentioned in the Mari folklore which finds parallels in Ainu and Nenets myths. Udmurt variants of folk songs include the mythologem of a duck (goose) with ducklings. The myth of a creator eagle and two ducks was perhaps characteristic not only of the Finns, Hungarians and North American Indians but also of the Mari. The Udmurt myth of creation is characterized by the presence, in addition to Inmar and Shaitan, of a cancer which finds a parallel in the Buryat cosmogonic myth. The motif of primordial ice and frozen primordial earth was probably widespread in the traditions of Izhora, Mari, part of the Bashkirs who were descendants of the Finno-Ugric peoples, Nganasan. And, thus, this motif was apparently present in the Proto-Uralic mythology.

Keywords: swan, the cuckoo bird, goose, duck, Udmurts, myth of a bird, Mari, Baltic-Finnish peoples, creation from an egg, eagle

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.1.35253

Abstract: The subject of this research is the celebration of the Day of Russian Culture in Harbin. This holiday was widely celebrated in most countries of emigration in the 1920s – 1930s; however, its popularity subsided after the World War II. An attempt is made to examine and analyze the arrangements for the Day of Russian Culture in the major center of White Russian émigrés in Northeast China – Harbin. For achieving the set goal, the author meticulously reviews all key aspects of the celebration: its preparation, main events for adults and children, release of festive publications. The article employs the previously known materials, such as the journal “The Day of Russian Culture” that published the reports of celebration and articles that better describe its essence; as well as introduces the new sources into the scientific discourse, such as materials from the State Archive of Khabarovsk Region, namely documents on the preparation and holding of the Day of Russian Culture. The conclusion is made that the festival was an important event for the Russian population of Harbin, united various emigrant communities, and contributed to preservation of the national culture in the conditions of separation from their homeland.

Keywords: holidays, russian emigration, Manchukuo, national education, Harbin, Day of Russian Culture, Pushkin, national culture, emigrant culture, BRAM

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.2.16088

Abstract: This article examines the history of the German national minority in Poland in 1938–1939 within the context of the developed policy of Nazi Germany. At the centre of the author’s attention lie the historical circumstances in which the Polish Germans found themselves on the eve of the Second World War, their political organisers and leaders. The article reviews the main policy lines of the Nazi Reich in drawing the Germans in Poland into its orbit of influence and their use against the Second Republic. The author analyses the position of Germans in various parts of Poland and assesses Berlin’s attempts at organising a united political party for Polish Germans, analogous to the Sudeten German party of Konrad Henlein in Czechoslovakia. Nonetheless, despite the strong position of the National socialist Young German party of Rudolf Wiesner, the creation of a united pro-Nazi organisation within the Second Republic did not take place. This was meanwhile the Polish authorities did not consider Germans loyal citizens of the state, which automatically repelled also the committed antifascists among Catholic organisations, Social democrats, and Communists. At the same time, the author comes to the conclusion that Polish Germans should not be automatically associated with the so-called Fifth column. Despite their sympathies for Germany, the number of committed Nazis in Poland was not great. The policy of the Polish authorities towards the German national minorities and its inconsistencies is also subjected to analysis in this study.

Keywords: Volksdeutsche, history of Germany, Second Polish republic, history of Poland, National socialism, Second World War, Germans in Poland, Rudolf Wiesner, Young German party, fifth column

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2015.2.66843

Keywords: Volksdeutsche, history of Germany, Second Polish republic, history of Poland, National socialism, Second World War, Germans in Poland, Rudolf Wiesner, Young German party, fifth column

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2021.3.35205

Abstract: The object of this research is the Crimean Tatar female residents of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic during the 1920-1941. The subject of this research is their engagement in the education system of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. The goal is to introduce new facts about the Crimean Tatar women involved in this sphere of social activity of the period under review, broaden the knowledge on the role they played therein, discuss the positions they held, and how their role changed over time. The author publishes and analyzes the previously unpublished materials discovered in the State Archive of the Republic of Crimea. The author reveals the new biographical records of the number of Crimean Tatar women engaged in the education system of the Crimean ASSR during the indicated historical period. If the records of 1920s depict a Crimean Tatar female pedagogue as an illiterate teacher of traditional crafts, then in the 1930s it is a women with professional education in geography, philology, natural sciences, or elementary school teachers. Some cases indicate that such woman could be the head of an orphanage or school; the author picks Zuledzha Adzheredinova is a bright example. Female pedagogues worked in the publishing industry. It is worth noting the high labor mobility of these women: frequent relocation from villages to cities or the other way around.

Keywords: enlightenment, women, archive, SARC, State archive of the RC, education, Crimean ASSR, crimean tatar women, Narkompros of Crimea, Regional Tatar art and industrial technical school

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.2.39972

Abstract: The object of the study is the migration policy of the Russian Empire in the Far East. The subject is the views and approach of the military Governor of the Primorsky Region (1888-1897) and the Governor-General of the Amur Region (1905-1910) P. F. Unterberger to the resettlement from Korea and the economic activities of Koreans in the Amur Region. The purpose of the study is to analyze P. F. Unterberger's policy on the settlement of the Korean issue in the Russian Far East. The author examines in detail the assessments of the regional administrator regarding the degree of assimilation of Korean immigrants with the Russian population, reveals his approach to the acceptance of Koreans into Russian citizenship. Special attention is paid to the negative aspects of the economic detail of Koreans in the Russian Far East and the political risks associated with their stay in Russia, which P. F. Unterberger highlighted in his essays. The scientific novelty of the study consists in the conclusion about the key role of the official in the development of measures of the Far Eastern administration to formalize the legal status of Koreans in Russia. The main reasons for the administrator's negative attitude towards immigrants from Korea are identified. The main principles that guided the official in carrying out the policy on the settlement of the Korean problem are formulated. The author stressed that the views expressed by P. F. Unterberger in his works contradict the basic principles of the national policy of the Russian Federation. Individual formulations of an official by modern standards are politically incorrect and cannot be used either in official documents or in scientific or journalistic materials.

Keywords: korean question, Far Eastern administration, Amur region, citizenship, Koreans, colonization, governor, assimilation, aliens, oath

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.6.69302

Abstract: In the modern world, the Arctic region retains its important strategic importance. Close interest in the formation and development of a network of settlements in the polar countries can be traced in modern research. The purpose of the work is to trace the influence of modernization processes on the transformation of the settlement network on the example of the Yamalo-Nenets National District in the 1920s and 1930s. The object is the settlement network of the studied region, the subject is its spatial and quantitative characteristics. The analysis of the data obtained takes into account the influence of natural, geographical, socio-economic and other conditions for the development of a network of settlements. In the study of the processes of settlement network formation and its transformation, various methodological approaches are traced. In this regard, the modernization theory of social development is of interest, where, according to the concept, urbanization is viewed through the prism of not only demographic, but settlement processes in both cities and rural areas. The work is based on the materials of the Circumpolar Census of 1926-1927 and the All-Union Census of 1939. To analyze documentary sources, a set of statistical methods was used, as well as historical-genetic, historical-comparative, historical-typological research methods, methods of graphical representation of the obtained statistical data. Based on the newly introduced and published sources of statistical accounting of the population of the Yamalo-Nenets National District, the influence of modernization processes on the development of the settlement network is traced. The factors contributing to the growth of the number of settlements have been identified. In 1939, the national settlements of the indigenous inhabitants of the tundra were the most numerous – out of 222 settlements, almost half were yurts (107), more than a quarter (44) were trading posts. During the 1920s and 1930s, new features in the settlement network of the district can be traced on the territory of the district: the district center was transformed into a city; the number of working settlements increased; new types of settlements appeared, most of their names reflected the features of industrial and economic activity (fishing, fish patch, sand, St. John's wort, forest patch, state farm, farm, weather station, radio station). Thus, against the background of the preservation of the complexity of the economic life of the population and the traditional types of settlement, some features of urbanization were traced.

Keywords: the size of settlements, typology of settlements, trading posts, city, yurts, Yamalo-Nenets National District, settlement network, modernization, peasant exile, special settlement

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2014.4.13854

Abstract: The article is devoted to the sources of the german national consciousness in the era of the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). Despite to the religious split in Germany, there where some thinkers, first of all poets and writers, who declared the german unity and love to the fatherland. In german lands, which had been divided for a long time in two confessional parts, it was a very new idea. Thus it was an illustration for the mental changes in the society consciousness, which turned from the religious interests to the new model of the national state and their building in the early modern time. The article gives a new look to the reasons of the Thirty Years War not only as a confessional struggle, but as a war for a new state model. The source for the article is the publicism of the Thirty Years War.

Keywords: Thirty Years War, nationalism, confessionalization, nation, M. Opitz, G. Ph. Harsdoerfer, H.J. K. Grimmelshausen, intellectual elite, german literature, Germany

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2014.4.66126

Abstract: The article examines the questions concerning the religious rupture in Germany and its influence on the formation of the German national idea in the period of the Thirty years\’ war (1618–1648). The intellectual life of the Holy Roman empire of the German nation from the second decade of the 17th century was significantly determined by the Thirty years\’ war. The German intellectuals, mostly authors and publicists, were the first to raise through their works the subject of the necessity for German unity and love for one\’s homeland, without the traditional division into Catholics and Protestants developed from the 16th century. For the German duchies, divided by confessional allegiances, this became a novel challenge. The article is based on a wide range of sources, mainly from the publicist and literary genres from the middle and second half of the 17th century. The originality of this research is in its analysis of the genesis of the German national idea through the prism of the confessional uniqueness of the German territorial duchies. The sources used by the author, in the first place publicist material and literature, in itself also presents the originality of this research. Despite the fact that among the intellectual elite there were representatives of different religious views, it was the authors and publicist who presented a unique example of confessional tolerance. This narrow stratum of German society became the messenger of mental changes and the announcer of transition from confessional doctrines to the new notions of “state interests”, weaved with the formation of the early Modern national conceptions.

Keywords: nationalism, confessionalisation, nation, M. Opitz, G. Ph. Harsdörffer, H. J. Ch. Grimmelshausen, intellectual elite, German literature, Germany.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2014.4.13942

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2014.4.66127

Abstract: The Russian society focused a lot of its attention on the Balkan wars of 1912–1913, and on Bulgaria in particular. Correspondents of periodicals went to the peninsula. Many of them had never been to the Balkans and did not know the character of the population living there, thereby were free from the clichés concerning them and could evaluate the Bulgarian mores without bias. These correspondents described the Bulgarian character as peace-loving, hard-working and household-oriented, which was also noted by those visiting the country earlier. But in wartime this household-orientation sometimes took up rather unsympathetic forms. Along with this, witnesses saw a manifestation of bellicosity, the wish to fight their adversaries at all costs, and cruelty towards the enemy. Analysing these facts, reporters defined two sources for them. The first – to revenge the Turks for their century-old subjugation and oppression. The second – to attain the national ideal, the San Stefano Bulgaria. At the same time, it is impossible to affirm that these sentiments were not intensified by the government. The success of the official propaganda of historic myths confirms that in the minds of the Bulgarians the image of a San Stefano Bulgaria and Macedonia was deeply rooted. These were the symbols capable of exposing the Bulgarian society to changes and to dislodge it fr om its peaceful routine.

Keywords: attitude towards the enemy, imagology, Bulgaria, Balkan wars, Russian correspondents, mores, San Stefano Bulgaria, Macedonia, Bulgarians, people at war.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2013.6.10899

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2013.6.64178

Abstract: The article examines the formation and development of the Medieval Georgian society’s perception of its surrounding world and outside areas, of Georgia itself and its frontiers, of contiguous countries and other geographical regions. The author takes into close consideration the questions of the formation in the Early Middle Ages of the idea of Georgian statehood and its later development. The basis for this research are the Georgian, Greek, Latin, eastern narrative sources and documents (medieval hagiographical, historical and geographical sources, and also the writings of Georgian travelers of the Later Middle Ages), and linguistic and ethnographic information. The author’s research methodology is founded on a complex critical analysis of the terms used to designate settlements, and of the ethnographical and political nomenclature. The comparative historical method is also used. The author comes to the conclusion that the main factor in the formation and development process of the Medieval Georgian society’s worldview was Christianity. The confessional affiliation of the population, and not its real geographic location, defined its definition of the characteristics of other regions and countries. The author notes a change in terms denoting various ethnic elements, from narrow ethnic to wider ethnopolitical and ethnoconfessional notions. The concept of statehood was also associated with the Christian worldview: the state of Georgia (“all of Kartli”) was understood to be a country where divine service was read in the Georgian language. This took place at the same time as the merging process of identifying the ethnogeographical frontiers of the spreading Kartvelic ethnic element with the ecclesiastical-administrative frontiers of the Georgian Church, and with the political-administrative boundaries of the Georgian government.

Keywords: ethnographical zones, Christianity, Georgian written sources, Abazgia, Georgia, Black Sea coast, Byzantine Pontos, history, ethnogeographical nomenclature, the idea of Georgian statehood.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.5.20487

Abstract: The article is focused on the study of the cultural and historical roots of the Yakut national wrestling Khapsagay in the traditional culture of the Sakha people. On the basis of an analysis of the traditional ethnic group of Yakut, it is shown that the named combat sport does indeed have ethno-cultural and ethno-pedagogical origins. However, the examination of historical sources and material from ethnographical expeditions in the 17th–18th centuries reveals that there are no specific mentions of the wrestling khapsagay in these texts. The authors come to the conclusion that the Yakut wrestling khapsagay is part of the cultural rite body complex for traditional Yakut festivities, and does not stand as a separate cultural element. The foundation of this investigation is based on the study of ethnographical writings of ethnographers of the Second Kamchatka Expedition, as well as field studies of ethnographers in the 17th – first half of the 20th century. Having analyzed the historical material, the authors come to the conclusion that khapsagay served merely as an element of traditional pastimes of the Yakut people, not having a particular role in the ritual activities. The given facts leave unanswered the question regarding the true origins of khapsagay wrestling. According to the authors, it is necessary to continue the study of the cultural-historical roots of the named national combat form.

Keywords: national wrestling, Yakutia, ethnography, traditions, Yhyakh, north, ethnic group, national culture, ethnopedagogy, khapsagay

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2016.5.68346