Abstract: The Terek Streltsy were a major part of the garrison and a major part of the town's residents. They influenced the development of political events both in the Caucasus and beyond its borders. But until now the Terek Streltsy have not been the object of a special scientific study. Special attention in the article is paid to such issues of the history of Streltsy units as their number and composition, participation in hostilities and other services: escorting ambassadors to Georgia, conveying Georgian or Persian ambassadors, as well as representatives of the peoples of the Northern Caucasus to Moscow, delivering letters to Georgia, Persia, Moscow, to Caucasian rulers, and collecting materials about the Caucasus and the neighboring states and peoples. The main conclusions of the author are that Terek Streltsy units, despite their small number, took part in important historical events. The 1614 march of Terek Streltsy units to Astrakhan and their defeat of Ivan Zarutsky strengthened the rule of the new dynasty and restored the unity of the country after the Time of Troubles Events. Military actions of Streltsy units also strengthened the Tsarist power in the Caucasus. Streltsy units of Terek provided diplomatic relations with Georgia by guarding the ambassadors. Streltsy soldiers also enabled communication between Moscow and the Terek city with the peoples of the Caucasus and collected information about these peoples. Thus, not only in military, but also in peaceful, diplomatic and political relations in the region, Terek Streltsy played an important role.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.40981

Abstract: The author dwells in detail on the search in the medical literature of the nineteenth - twenty-first centuries for various options for describing the anatomy, physiology and pathological physiology of the appendix, as well as its acute inflammation, complicated course, the spectrum of principles of its treatment, as well as their outcomes from antiquity to the present day. At the same time, the emphasis is placed on the study of foreign literature reviews and the search for primary sources of priority works to identify historical facts described in previously unquoted works and unknown to domestic specialists, in order to familiarize domestic specialists in the history of medical science with important details of the formation of general surgery.There is a two-hundred-year period between the anatomical description of the appendix and the recognition that it is the appendix that is the focus of acute inflammatory disease in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen. This truth was not widely recognized until the publication of R. Fitz's work 120 years later. The disease of acute appendicitis has a social character and, apparently, influenced the course of history. A comparative analysis of the possibilities of treatment of acute appendicitis and their results allowed us to establish five stages in the history of the study of acute appendicitis.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.43583

Abstract: The object of the study is the international relations of Azerbaijan in the XXI century. The subject of the study is the North American and European directions of the foreign policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in 2003-2019. The author dwells in detail on the interaction of Azerbaijan with the United States of America and the European Union within the specified chronological framework. The greatest attention is paid to bilateral relations, as well as partnership within the framework of various international projects. This perspective allows us to consider Azerbaijan as one of the main keys of access to the Caspian region for the United States and the EU, which have considered the region as strategically important since the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The research methods are content analysis, discourse analysis and historical research methods. The choice of chronological framework is due to the fact that 2003 is the year of the beginning of the presidency of Ilham Aliyev. In 2019, Azerbaijan, together with the whole world, entered a pandemic, which marked the transition to the transformation of almost all spheres of life. However, apart from the pandemic, the Karabakh crisis has become another event in the life of the state, the significance of which has yet to be studied. The scientific novelty of the study is that the foreign policy activity of the Republic of Azerbaijan is reflected quite briefly in Russian historiography. The main attention of researchers, as a rule, is paid to the relations between Baku and other actors in the South Caucasus and the Caspian region, however, it should be noted that the US and the EU had a great influence on the political climate of the entire post-Soviet space and the Caspian Sea was no exception. The main conclusion of the author is that the influence of the West reached its apogee in the middle of the "noughties", but then, for various reasons, its curtailment followed. It is also worth noting the multi-vector approach that allowed Azerbaijan to strengthen its position in the international arena at the beginning of the XXI century, which helped Baku to overcome the Karabakh crisis relatively painlessly.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.43632

Abstract: The article discusses the issues of organizing assistance to Soviet families during the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945). In wartime conditions, accompanied by economic instability for the state, families with children, including military families, were in a difficult situation. Taking care of the Soviet family and the younger generation became the basis of the course of social policy, but the state could not always provide targeted assistance in time. That is why an important element of the organization of conditions for a stable situation of the population has become the involvement of collective farms, industrial and commercial enterprises, as well as individuals to assist families with children. The scientific novelty of the article consists in attracting a wide range of sources from the archives of the Republic of Buryatia and the Irkutsk region. Analysis of the documents showed that during the Great Patriotic War, the population helped those in need in various forms. In difficult times, the people acted unanimously and created various aid organizations: red Cross societies, charitable foundations, maternity and childhood committees. The population also helped those in need by accepting orphans, evacuated citizens and refugees for temporary residence. The enterprises did not stand aside. For the Baikal region, these measures were as important as for the rest of the USSR.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.43745

Abstract: The article considers the main approaches that exist in domestic and foreign historiography to the periodization of the customs war that unfolded between Russia and Germany at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. The author draws attention to the difficulty of determining its chronological framework. Unlike an international armed conflict, a customs war is not characterized by the separation of the stages of declaration and end of war; the beginning of a customs war is often due to the defensive actions of the "victim of the attack"; it is difficult to identify the tariff and non-tariff measures being taken as "military operations". The author believes that the beginning of a customs war should be discussed only when restrictive measures are selective and applied to a single country or group of countries. On the basis of archival documents, the author made an attempt to cast doubt on the prevailing position that the trade agreement of 1894 put an end to the customs war between the Russian and German empires. The trade agreement of 1894 marked a truce in the customs war, periodically violated by one side or the other. The point of view is substantiated that the end of the protracted economic conflict is connected with the beginning of the First World War and the subsequent break in Russian-German trade relations. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the fact that the author proposes his own approach to the periodization of the customs war between two empires.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.43716

Abstract: Until recently, the genealogy of the family of the great Russian architect and painter Vasily Ivanovich Bazhenov (1738-1799) was little studied, full of inaccuracies and misconceptions. A little fragmentary and not always accurate information about the children and grandchildren of the architect was presented mainly in the works of Y. Y. Gerchuk and E. I. Ilizarova. However, until now, for example, the exact dates of life and burial places of members of the architect's family were unknown. The author of the present research studied church books, confession lists, archival court cases and many other archival documents and found a lot of new and previously unpublished information about the children of Vasily Bazhenov and his wife Agraphena Lukinichna (1745-1817): Konstantin (1771-1826), Vladimir (1772-1820), Olga (1773-not earlier than 1825), Vsevolod (1774-1843), Voin 1 (1776-1779), Nadezhda (1778-1857), Voin 2 (1779-1784), Mstislav (1782-1783), Vera (1784-not earlier than 1834) and Voin 3 (1785). The relevance and novelty of the study lies in the publication and systematization of many previously unknown facts from the history of V. I. Bazhenov's family, which significantly expands the understanding of the outstanding architect. The article presents the results of field survey of the Bazhenovs' burial sites in the Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and the Republic of Mordovia on the subject of the burials' preservation, these results are also important for necropolistics. The study provides dates of life, dates of marriages, as well as information about family, property, official status, family composition, places of residence, burial, etc., which allowed to reconstruct the genealogical picture of the family of the architect V. I. Bazhenov and his offsprings quite completely.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.40985

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to analyze the implentation possibilities of classical theories of nationalism to analysis of the Iranian nationalism history. The author analyzes the ideal models of Ruritania and Magalomania as imagining nationalizing and modernizing societies proposed by Ernest Gellner. The novelty of the study lies in the analysis of the features and contradictions of the development of the historical forms of Iranian nationalism in contexts of the ideal models proposed in modernist historiography. It is assumed that the nationalist modernization of the Qajars and Pahlavi in Iranian historiography is perceived through the prism of a constructivist approach. The article analyzes 1) the problems of the inability of nationalism to become the dominant and determining political force that constructs the main features of the development of society and the state in Iran, 2) the features of the development and transformation of the traditions of political and ethnic nationalism, 3) the role of the ruling Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties in implentation of various strategies of nationalist modernization. The article also shows the potential of a comparative analysis of various historical forms of Iranian nationalisms in contexts of a constructivist approach. The results of the study suggest that 1) the causes and forms of the crisis of the nationalist project in Iran can be described and analyzed adequately with use of Ruritania and Megalomania concepts as ideal types of nationalism development, formulated by Ernest Gellner in contexts of social and cultural histories as confrontations between the political principles of the nation and religious principles and ideals of the Ummah; 2) Iranian modern system emerged as an attempt to institutionalize a compromise between a civilized modernized Megalomania and traditional Shia Ruritania, which led to a combination of political nationalism with an internationally declared recognition of the primacy of Shiism.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.41024

Abstract: The paper explores the activities of the party «Citizens» with a focus on its role in the development of the protracted crisis of executive power in Spain. For four years, the country has faced the problem of forming a government: during that period, early national elections were held four times, Spain lived without a government twice. The author studies the peculiarities of ideological image, social support and organizational principles; examines their evolution in connection with the development of crisis phenomena in the social and political life of Spain. Special emphasis is given to analysis of the maneuvers of the «Citizens» at the national and regional levels. It is concluded that the «Citizens» sought to realize their political potential: the party largely determined the process of forming government coalitions. Until 2019, «Citizens» successfully collaborated with two leading forces – socialists and conservatives. The lack of a clear self-identification of «Citizens» contributed to the maneuvering of the party and attracting the attention of the electorate with different political views. The partnership of «Citizens» with opposing forces led to a serious internal party crisis, as a result of which the party lost its political weight at the national level. In the period of the crisis the «Citizens» managed to become an integral part of the political system and determine the general direction of the transformation of the spanish bipartism towards confrontation between the conditionally left and right coalition.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.41038

Abstract: Object of the study is the image of the May 4th Movement of 1919 in the official interpretation of history of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in PRC. The goal is to trace changes in the interpretation of the Movement in speeches of Chinese Communist Party's leaders on the occasion of its anniversary. To do this, author conducts qualitative and quantitative content analysis of the relevant speeches of 1979, 1989, 1999, 2009 and 2019. There are five main conceptual blocks present in every speech: attitude towards tradition, assessment of past mistakes of CCP and role of Mao Zedong, "spirit of May 4th Movement", development goals and youth policy. In the course of analysis, changes in content of these blocks are traced. Thus, ideological transformation of PRC is viewed in the context of changes in official interpretation of a significant historical event. Memory of this event in China is filled with various meanings, including themes of democracy and youth rebellion, inconvenient for the ruling Communist Party. Author comes to the conclusion that at least since late 1990s CCP has begun to rely on nationalism as a new source of legitimization of its power. In the analyzed speeches it can be seen how, with a greater emphasis on the patriotic component of the "Movement", other meanings associated with it, primarily democracy and science, have fallen by the wayside. At the same time, there has been a transition from rejection of traditional culture to its acceptance.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.43588

Abstract: This article discusses the domestic policy of Emperor Michael IV the Paphlagonian (1034 – 1041), aimed at maintaining the power of the Paphlagonian dynasty. The subject of the article is the activities of the Paphlagonian dynasty in 1034 – 1041, aimed at maintaining power and integrating into the Byzantine elite. The object of the study is the information of Byzantine contemporaries - Michael Psellos, John Skylitsa, Kekavmen and Michael Attaliates. The methodological basis of the work, first of all, was the source analysis and historical and systemic approaches, which made it possible to comprehensively consider the internal policy of Michael IV the Paphlagonian (1034 – 1041) and his supporters in the context of the internal political struggle in the empire. The application of the prosopogarphic method made it possible to identify the characteristic features and motivation of a group of supporters of Michael IV – representatives of the Paphlagonian clan. In addition, qualitative and quantitative content analyzes played an important role in the analysis of sources. The main conclusion of the study is the assumption that despite numerous attempts, the Paphlagonian dynasty failed to create a solid foundation for maintaining power and integrate into the Byzantine elite. Representatives of the Byzantine elite during the reign of Michael IV the Paphlagonian (1034 – 1041) viewed the rule of the Paphlagonians as a situational and temporary rule that was acceptable only in the short term.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.40828

Abstract: Jules Favre (1809-1880) is one of the «founding fathers» of the Third Republic in France, who contributed much to the formation of the republican tradition in Hexagone. In the Russian historiography hasn’t appeared yet a special study devoted to the political views and activities of Jules Favre. In the article Jules Favre is considered as a prominent figure of the republican movement in France of the XIX century, who played an important role in the struggle for the establishment of the republican system in France. The July Revolution of 1830 was a big influence on the formation of Favre's political views. During the years of the Second Republic Favre took an important place among moderate "blue" Republicans who linked the future of the republic with general Cavaignac. The article refutes the point of view established in Russian historiography that Emile Ollivier from the very beginning headed the liberal "five" opposition deputies during the Second Empire. The article shows that the strategic mistakes made as Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Government of National Defense during negotiations with Bismarck’s Prussia, drew a line under Favre's political career and created a partly negative image of this politician in historiography. This article is based on a wide range of sources: various speeches and writings by J. Favre, as well as memoirs, diaries and correspondence of his contemporaries.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.40990

Abstract: The subject of the research is the study of the content, forms and methods of practical activity of cultural organizations, associations of the Penza region and creative workers during the Great Patriotic War at the front and in the rear, as well as socio-cultural interaction in order to form patriotic sentiments. Special attention is paid to the coverage of the activities of cultural institutions of the Penza Region, creative associations, as well as the work of the authorities to achieve the goals and objectives of ensuring the preservation of a high level of socio-psychological motivation of the Soviet population in the fight against the Nazi invaders.The study is also a collection, generalization and updating of local history material on the transformation of cultural life of the Penza region caused by evacuation processes. Within the framework of the work, new historical sources that were not previously involved in scientific circulation are published, to study the socio-cultural space and creativity of cultural figures of the Penza region during the Great Patriotic War as a system of interaction and education of patriotism, adaptation strategies of the Soviet man in the conditions of mobilization and extreme living conditions. The thesis is substantiated that the response of art workers to the needs of wartime was not just a formal execution of a state order, but an internal call, a philosophically grounded meaningful action of each employee. It was the inner desire to be useful during the war, coupled with creative potential and a sincere desire for self-realization, that became a vivid example of the manifestation of spiritual and moral values traditional for our Fatherland. The material collected and analyzed in the work can be used in research work, in the preparation of teaching aids, in university and school training courses, including local history, as well as in the work of museums and in the preparation of scientific literature. The methodological basis of the work was logical, historical-logical, system-structural, socio-cultural, comparative-legal, generalization, commenting method.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.43419

Abstract: The subject of the study is the process of transformation of the structures of the Presidential apparatus responsible for ensuring a continuous dialogue between the head of state and parliamentary parties and movements, most of which in the 1990s were adjacent to the opposition camp. The purpose of the work is to identify the key factors that influenced the formation and further diversification of departments of the presidential administration interacting with the Russian party-political spectrum in the crisis situation of the 1990s, based on the use of various sources (normative legal acts, analytical materials of political journalism, electronic resources). Problem-chronological, formal-legal, institutional, systemic and structural-functional approaches are used as the main methods. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the almost complete absence of works examining the history of the formation and evolution of the Presidential Administration from the angle of the impact of the party-political and electoral factor on this institution. In the course of the conducted research, it was possible to establish that interaction with socio-political associations was not the main activity of the Presidential Administration in the 1990s. Only after the restoration of the Communist Party, as well as the election of the opposition Duma (1993), a department appeared in the Presidential Administration that oversaw interaction with the new parliamentary fronde. The main task of this structural unit (despite the frequent change of names, numbers and responsibilities) was its participation in the implementation of a common strategy for the political containment of anti-presidential (anti-communist, anti-reformist) forces in a crisis situation. At the same time, the activities of the department for working with parties in the context of the general anti-communist strategy of the 1990s were of an auxiliary (technological) nature, while the main political issues were resolved by the first persons of the opposing sides at a personal (behind-the-scenes-informal) level.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.4.40946

Abstract: The subject of the study is a comparative characteristic of salaries of officials of the mining sector of the Altai Mining District in the 1860s. The study of salaries of officials is carried out in the context of consideration of income inequality issues. The annual salaries of officials of the V-th Department of the Altai Mining Board, Altai factories, mines with a class according to the Table of Ranks, as well as the salaries of lower ranks located outside it, are considered. A comparison of the salaries of officials in the pre-reform and post-reform periods is given. Attention is paid to the minimum and maximum sizes, and the average salaries of officials of both groups are compared: class officials and lower ranks. The novelty of the study is determined by the weak knowledge of the topic of salaries of Siberian officials in the 1860s, especially in the context of the study of income inequality. On the basis of archival sources, many of which have not previously been introduced into scientific circulation, as well as published staff schedules, the salaries of officials with a class according to the Table of Ranks and the so-called lower ranks have been revealed. The data on the minimum and maximum salaries, as well as the average values for both groups of officials are given. A comparative characteristic of the salaries of class officials and lower ranks of the mining industry of the Altai Mining District is given, as well as a comparison with the salaries of officials of European Russia in the studied period.