Abstract: The object of this study are the necropolises of the Moscow Kremlin, the subject of the study is the history of their study by field archaeological methods. The purpose of the study is to examine the history of the study of Kremlin necropolises in the context of field archaeological research in the Kremlin and highlight the stages of development of this process. The author examines in detail such aspects of the topic as methods of field archaeological research, their application and development in Kremlin archaeology and necropolistics – from the fixation of accidental finds and the search for relics to systematic archaeological observations and full-fledged archaeological excavations. Special attention is paid to the history of the discovery of burial complexes unknown according to written sources. As a result of the conducted research, the article examines the history of the study of the Moscow Kremlin in the XIX-XXI centuries by field archaeological methods, in the context of the archaeological study of the Moscow Kremlin, the history of field archaeological research of Kremlin necropolises is highlighted and, based on the analysis of the materials considered, the chronological stages of the development of Kremlin archaeology are highlighted. The scientific novelty of the article is to create a single brief description of the history of the study of the necropolises of the Moscow Kremlin by field methods of archaeology and to develop a periodization of the development of Kremlin archaeology. The main conclusion of the study is the identification of two major periods in the archaeological study of the Moscow Kremlin and the Kremlin necropolises. The criterion for the allocation of periods is the development of field research methods - from the fixation of random finds and observations to systematic excavations. The first period covers more than a century – from the late 1830s to the early 1950s. The author characterizes it as a time of accidental finds and occasional observations of earthworks. The second period begins in the second half of the XX century, when it became possible to conduct systematic observations of earthworks in the Moscow Kremlin, lay architectural and archaeological pits and conduct full-fledged archaeological excavations.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39611

Abstract: The search for the optimal route of the Trans- Siberian Railway took more than a decade in the second half of the XIX century. The discussions on this issue involved not only government officials, but also representatives of business circles, members of Russian scientific and technical societies, and broad public circles. Russian Geographical and Imperial Russian Technical Societies' activity in the 1870s - early 1890s to develop proposals on the route of the transcontinental railway, as well as on the use of waterways in the context of solving the problems of the construction of the Trans–Siberian Railway is considered in the article. The main sources were verbatim reports, reports and other materials published following the meetings of participants of these Russian scientific societies, as well as invited speakers. Discussions about possible directions of the future Trans-Siberian Railway line, which took place in the 1870s – early 1890s, contributed to the gradual formation of the main possible options for the route of the railway, taking into account, first of all, economic interests, financial opportunities, technical difficulties and construction deadlines. Some of the proposed solutions and recommendations were taken into account during the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway in subsequent years. In addition, thanks to the participation of scientists, engineers and other specialists in these discussions, it was possible to formulate priority tasks for further topographic, geological, hydrological, climatic and other studies of the territories of Siberia and the Far East, which were planned to be carried out with the direct participation of the state, both in the context of railway construction tasks, and in general to expand knowledge about these territories.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.38406

Abstract: The subject of the research is the peculiarities of educational and patriotic work with cadets of the Irkutsk Fire Technical School of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR in 1970. A brief analysis of the development and transformation of this type of educational activity is given on the example of the work of structural training units of a fire school. The role and list of staff of the command and teaching staff who carried out educational and patriotic work with cadets during the activity of the educational institution are indicated. The research methodology includes a concrete historical approach (M.V. Astakhov, I.D. Kovalchenko, V.F. Kolomiytsev, A.P. Pronstein, etc.), as well as generalization, comparison, synthesis, classification, specification; analysis of archival documents, legislation and scientific literature; retrospective analysis; method of historical analogies. The novelty of this scientific article lies in the fact that during the scientific research, historical sources, archival data describing in detail the history of the formation and development of educational and patriotic work in the Irkutsk Fire Technical School of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR have been identified and summarized. The conducted research is of interest to a wide range of readers, since the study of educational-patriotic, educational-pedagogical, structural-organizational and service activities in educational institutions of fire protection of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR is a very important component in the study of the formation and development of departmental education of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR on the territory of the Baikal region in the 20th century.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39619

Abstract: The article examines the activitiy of the «Project for a New American Century» (PNAC), one of the main think tanks that formed the foreign policy of US President George W. Bush. The "Project" was formed by publicists - W. Kristol and R. Kagan in 1997 and became the mouthpiece of the American neo-conservative elite. An analysis of the documents of the PNAC which are in the public domain, is carried out in order to identify the positions of the analytical center on the main issues of US foreign policy during the presidency of B. Clinton and George W. Bush. It is concluded that within the framework of the "Project" were comprehended and formulated most of the foreign policy initiatives implemented by Washington in the first half of the 2000s of the 21st century.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39759

Abstract: This article is a study of the activities of the statesman of the first half of the XVII century, Baim Fedorovich Boltin, reflected in the Stolyarov chronograph and the private service book of Nikita and Grigory Zyuzin. The purpose of the work is to identify exaggerations of merit, inconsistencies of the studied information with other sources and other features of the narrative in the above sources. Setting such a goal is due to the particular origin of these sources, and as a consequence of their subjective nature. Moreover, the reason for the origin of such sources is obvious - the provision of official position in case of parochial disputes and other situations arising during promotion or accession to the throne of a new sovereign, which indicates the biased nature of the sources. The scientific novelty of the work is due to the insufficient study of such a source as the Stolyarov chronograph and the role of "heroes of the second plan" in the history of Russia. Baim Boltin is a bright representative of his time, who went from an Arzamas nobleman to a governor of large cities, a nursery and an ambassador. Not having a noble origin and a high service status, he compiled a unique private service book (Stolyarov chronograph), in which he reflected several important, in his opinion, his own achievements. The analysis of the chronograph and fragments of a private service book of his maternal relatives - brothers Nikita and Grigory Zyuzin, in comparison with more objective data, allowed us to find out certain features of the subjective reflection of information in sources of this kind. We attributed to them: minor distortions and exaggerations; shifting the emphasis of the narrative; the desire to put oneself closer to prominent statesmen when describing events; the obvious complementary nature of the description of one's own merits.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39773

Abstract: The subject of the study is the federal election campaigns of the main competitors in the German Bundestag elections of 1998 - the CDU and the SPD. The object of the study is the evolution of German political culture related to the practice of conducting federal election campaigns. The purpose of this work is to analyze the election campaigns of the CDU and the SPD in 1998 to identify new elements of the professionalized, "Americanized", modernized campaign of the SPD, which, against the background of the traditional CDU campaign, contributed to the victory of the Social Democrats and the coming to power in Germany of the "red-green" coalition led by Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder. The scientific novelty of the article is that the effectiveness of election campaigns is considered as one of the significant factors influencing the outcome of the party-political struggle, and the 1998 elections are considered as one of the turning points in the evolution of German political culture in terms of party election campaigns. The successful SPD campaign, which abandoned many traditional elements and actively borrowed new electoral practices from the United States and Great Britain, had a significant impact on the modernization of the forms and methods of electoral struggle of the main parties in Germany in the next two decades.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.38994

Abstract: The Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in China for two centuries served as an outpost of Orthodoxy and a foreign policy landmark of the Russian state in China, our task is to analyze the report of the bailiff of the XII Russian Spiritual Mission N.I. Lyubimov. For 30 years of work in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs N.I. Lyubimov collected in his collection a weighty layer of official documents, personal and business correspondence, memories that he took when leaving Russia. After his death, the documents were found and today they are stored in the Russian State Historical Archive in St. Petersburg. On the basis of a detailed reference to historical documents, the features of the relationship between Russia and China in the second half of the 19th century are analyzed. A huge role in this was played by the personality of N.I. Lyubimov, who was directly involved in compiling reports on important events and actors in Chinese politics, I analyze the possibility of using them in matters of diplomacy, it is also noteworthy that the bailiff gives valuable advice on saving state funds abroad. The authors come to the conclusion that the Russian Spiritual Mission in China, in general, and its representatives, in particular, were a link between the two countries, a source of reliable information about the internal political life of the Qing Empire, about its language, traditions, history, culture and way of life. Representatives of this mission for a long time acted as an unofficial diplomatic representation of Russia in China

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39571

Abstract: The study deals with the most significant crisis in the history of Russian banking, which occurred when 49 municipal banks and 13 mutual credit societies went bankrupt from 1882–1889. Historians have explained the causes of the crisis in various ways; however, these explanations are not fully verifiable due to lack of consolidated quantitative data on operations for municipal banks and mutual credit societies. Therefore, a new quantitative data set on these credit institutions was composed for this study. Comparison of the dynamics of joint-stock commercial banks, municipal banks, and mutual credit societies for 1875–1895 revealed that the decline in municipal banks was particularly sharp and deep, and it did not correlate with the dynamics of other banking institutions. This paper proves that the municipal banks crisis was caused by the accumulation of bad loans, poor financial stability, and the lack of proper control by municipal councils and the Ministry of Finance. Overcoming of these problems launched a new phase of banking regulation and supervision in the Russian Empire, which has been underestimated in historiography. The “pushing out” of municipal banks from risky operations was necessary to protect the financial interests of the municipal self-government associated with these banks. However, the crisis also had a pronounced regional perspective because most of the bankruptcies occurred in the Central Black Earth Region, and therefore the crisis was caused by a contraction in agricultural exports due to falling prices, combined with local crop failures in the first half of the 1880s.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39671

Abstract: The interest in the Seleucid empire and the problems of organizing the political space in the Hellenistic East has recently been due to a methodological turn in the historiography of the Hellenistic era. These changes actualized the study of the role of Babylonia in the empire of the first Seleucids according to narrative and epigraphic sources. The satrapy appears in them as the region where the political career of Diadochus and the founder of the Seleucus dynasty began after the death of Alexander the Great. It was here that his power was most entrenched, apparently supported by local priestly elites. Although the question of the political center of the Seleucid state has been considered in historiography, however, it has not received systematic study. The scientific novelty lies in the study of the early Seleucid state and the peculiarities of the eastern policy of the first Seleucids in the imperial context. The methodological basis is the methods used to study imperial and multicultural spaces, as well as general scientific philosophical and historical methods. The study of the legendary information about Seleucus revealed frequent references to Babylonia in predictions of his future power, which should be perceived as a vaticinium ex eventu. This indicates the ideological and "mythological" significance of the image of Babylonia for the Seleucids, which can be explained both by the strategic and economic role of the region and its significance in Alexander's policy, which can be interpreted as a manifestation of "imitatio Alexandri".

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39838

Abstract: The subject of the study is the influence of the Romanov family on the formation, development and ideology of Russian extracurricular organizations in the first half of the XX century. The author also examines in detail such aspects of the topic as the symbolic significance of the Romanovs' membership in children's associations and the role of the institution of patronage of organizations in preserving imperial traditions in the emigration of the "first wave". The connection of the Grand Dukes with the youth movements of the Union of Musketeers and the Order of Crusaders, which were active in the second half of the 1920s - early 1930s in Harbin and in the exclusion zone of the Chinese–Eastern Railway, is also considered. The scientific novelty of the work lies in the broad formulation of the question: 5 organizations have been considered for 3 decades. As a result of the conducted research, it is concluded that the ruling dynasty had a great influence on the emergence of children's and youth organizations in the Russian Empire. Their creation began with the initiative of Nicholas II in 1908 . Subsequently, for many decades, members of the Romanov family were patrons and participants of various Russian children's movements. Many of these movements, in turn, have made monarchism an important component of their ideology. In addition to Nicholas II, before the revolution, the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna provided assistance in the development of the scout movement, the heir to the throne was an honorary scout, and his second cousin Georgy Konstantinovich was no longer an honorary, but a real scout of the Tsarskoye Selo detachment.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39392

Abstract: The LDPR is the oldest of modern Russian political parties, a permanent successful participant in federal elections. Parties occupying extreme positions in the political spectrum are characterized by having their own ideas about the past, which they actively promote. Over the decades of active activity, the LDPR has managed to develop its own distinctive historical policy based on the views of the long-term leader of the party, V. V. Zhirinovsky. The author of the article analyzes the attitude of the Liberal Democrats to the key events of national history, identifies the features of their party policy in the field of memory, compares approaches with other political parties. The main sources were official documents of the LDPR, interviews, books and articles by party leader V. V. Zhirinovsky, publications carried out with the support of the party. Unlike other political parties, the LDPR addresses not only the historical events of the turbulent XX century, although it occupies a major place in the historical policy of the party. The main leitmotif of the national history of the LDPR considers opposition to the collective West, which for centuries after the collapse of the united Christian Church, tried to eliminate a competitor in the face of the East, and in particular Russia. The expansion of the West took place both by force and ideologically, which the party assesses as more destructive. Through the prism of this confrontation, the LDPR considers most of the key events, the most striking example of Western intervention was the 1917 revolutions inspired by him. The party considers the Russian Empire to be the ideal of the state. The formation of the LDPR's historical policy has not been fully completed, and the party has not yet formulated a single point of view on certain issues.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39724

Abstract: The purpose of the study is to analyse the perception of the problems of the history of the status of the Macedonian Orthodox Church in the politics of memory of modern North Macedonia. The author analyses the role and place of church narratives in historical politics and the development of memorial culture. The novelty of the study lies in the analysis of the features of the religious dimension of the politics of memory in modern Macedonian society as a secular state. The article analyses the perception of church issues in modern memorial Macedonian culture. The article also shows that the politics of memory that forms and promotes the perception of the history of the Church in the Macedonian ethnic coordinates system determine on the development of Macedonian nationalism. It is assumed that the political elites of modern North Macedonia actively use the problems of the history of the Church consolidating national identity in politics of memory. The results of the study suggest that the memorial culture of modern Macedonian society in contexts of the perception of the history of the Church is distinguished by a nationalistic character, and the perception of church history in the collective memory of Macedonia develops in contexts of memorial wars with other Balkan societies, integrating the historical heritage of Orthodoxy on the territory of Macedonia into their own historical memories.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39839

Abstract: The article presents an analysis of historiography devoted to the biography of J. Broeckell, an engineer who in 1697 supervised the construction of the first shipping canal, which was supposed to connect the Volga and the Don through their tributaries Kamyshinka and Ilovlya. The analysis showed that despite the fact that in the XVIII-XX centuries many sources containing reliable information about the activities of J. Broeckell in Russia were introduced into scientific circulation, the authors of works on the history of the construction of the Volga-Don Canal were based mainly not on these sources, but on the book by Englishman John Perry "The State Russia under the present tsar", who led the construction work on Kamyshinka in 1698-1702. In the course of the research, it was possible to establish the main biographical information about Johann Broeckell before his arrival in Russia, to clarify the circumstances of his admission to the tsarist service. Analysis of a wide range of published and archival data allowed us to prove that in 1696 J. Broeckell took part in the Azov campaign, was engaged in the construction of earthworks after the capture of the city by Russian troops. In 1697, under his leadership the canal between the tributaries of the Volga and Don Kamyshinka and Ilovlya was begun to built. At the beginning of 1698, apparently realizing that he would not be able to successfully complete the construction of the canal, J. Broeckell left Russia. At the end of 1698, he was captured by Russian troops while trying to transfer to the service of the Turks.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2023.1.39560

Abstract: The subject of the study is the results of the study by domestic researchers of the history of the formation and development of the objects of the shipbuilding base of the Baltic Fleet during the Peter the Great era. The aim of the work is to analyze the works of Russian scientists-historians of the pre-revolutionary, Soviet and post-Soviet periods on this problem and to form on this basis a holistic view of the formation and development at the initial stage of one of the most important branches of the domestic military industry. In the course of the study, the main attention will be paid to the consistent consideration of the history of the origin, the specifics of the organization and maintenance of activities, as well as the results of the activities of all shipyards that worked in the interests of the Baltic Fleet during the designated period. The research methodology is based on a combination of general philosophical, general scientific historical and special historical methods, such as analysis and synthesis, modeling, problem-chronological and perspective analysis method. The novelty of the conducted research lies in the fact that such an approach to the study of the initial stage of the history of the shipbuilding industry in the interests of the Baltic Fleet has not been applied in Russian historiography. According to the results of the study, a generalized picture of all shipbuilding enterprises established in the Peter the Great era in the north-western region of Russia and in the territories of the Baltic States and Finland conquered during the Northern War is presented. The results of the study allowed us to assess the nature of the formation of the industry as mainly spontaneous, although not devoid of a certain logic in the specific historical conditions of the Northern War. Certain patterns of placement of certain objects of shipbuilding infrastructure, the influence of geographical, hydrographic, production-logical and other features on their specialization are shown. A problematic issue requiring further study is formulated.