Abstract: The subject of this article is the work of three universities: Bashkir State University, Ufa State Aviation Technical University, and Ufa State Petroleum Technical University. Their work is being studied with the aim to identify their role in forming the personnel, technological, scientific and theoretical foundations of the state energy policy of Russia in 1991 – 2000s. The research is focused on the implementation of the Russian state policy in the field of training highly qualified personnel for the Russian energy field by universities of the Republic of Bashkortostan at the turn of the 20th – 21st centuries. Particular attention is paid to the development of infrastructure and quality parameters of energy education in Bashkortostan. The research methodology was determined by the modernization concept of the historical process and the aim of objectively covering facts and phenomena based on a critical scientific analysis of historical sources. The novelty of this research lies in the arguments and conclusions of the study's authors, which complement the current scientific understanding of the historical experience of the Russian reforms of the 1990s and 2000s. The authors present the main conclusion that the universities of Bashkortostan made an important contribution to the implementation of the state energy policy, systematically improving the quality of scientific and educational work, notwithstanding the difficulties of that transition period. In the 2000s, the training of qualified personnel in the energy field had become the interest of universities and leading energy companies operating in the Republic of Bashkortostan.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29363

Abstract: The subject of this article is the influence of the ideas of E. Bellamy on the ideology of the populist party in the United States of America at the end of the 19th century. In this work, the author analyzes the influence of E. Bellamy’s ideas on the leaders of the populist party, identifies the scale of their prevalence among ordinary members of the populist movement, undertakes a comparative analysis of the ideological views of E. Bellamy and populist thinkers, and identifies the reasons for the popularity of E. Bellamy’s works among the party's leaders and ordinary members. Within the framework of this study, in order to assess the prevalence of E. Bellamy's ideas among populists, the author applies the methodology of the intellectual history approach, which involves analyzing the number of references to E. Bellamy in the speeches of populist leaders and in the populist party press, and locating the existence of his works in personal and public libraries, where the populist party was very popular. The author widely applies the comparative approach to compare the ideological views of populists and E. Bellamy. This work is the first study in Russian historiography that demonstrates the widespread prevalence and the degree of influence that E. Bellamy’s ideas had on members of the populist party, based on archival and published sources. The author concludes the article stating that the ideas of E. Bellamy were very popular among populists. There are many similarities in the views of E. Bellamy and in those of various populists. The populist leaders and E. Bellamy both considered the contemporary socio-economic and political system of the United State of America as unjust and only serving the interests of the rich strata of the population.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29851

Abstract: The research subject of this study is the British society in the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, while the article's research object is the contradiction between the ethical imperatives of the British imperial project and its society's traditional conservative-democratic values, which ultimately became the basis for the conflict between the ideas of nation and empire. The aim of this article is to reconstruct and analyze the specifics of the English society's perception during the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries of the imperial project as a threat to the conservative and democratic traditions of Great Britain. The study is grounded on basic scientific principles and methodology of cultural history, while at the same time is based on the fundamental paradigm of imaginary communities and the constructivist theory of identity. The scientific novelty of this study lies in its attempt to examine the contradiction between the imperial ethics and the traditional system of values in the English society, on the one hand, and the elites representing these different projects, on the other. The authors demonstrate the conflict between the culture of governance and the attitude towards the law, established in the British Isles by the 19th century, and the practice of “administrative slaughter” of colonial officials, who were perceived as a threat to the Anglo-Saxon legal model. Particular attention is paid to the features behind the formation of colonial administration representatives. The authors analyze the characteristics of the English state-legal ideal, reveal the reasons for the transformation of state models under the conditions of managing colonies, and show the role of the British elite, the “younger sons”, in the development of the imperial project of Great Britain.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29861

Abstract: The subject of this research is the Soviet Union's negotiations on the purchase of Italian planes from the company "Fiat" in the early 1930s, as well as the testing of captured Italian CR.32 planes in the USSR. The article's aim is to investigate this aspect of the relations between the Soviet Union and Italy in the field of aviation, which has not been sufficiently studied in modern Russian historiography. The author focuses a lot of attention on the history of the Soviet-Italian negotiations with the company "Fiat Aviazione" and on the analysis of documents regarding the testing of the Italian fighter CR.32 by the Soviet state. The methodological basis of this study is comprised of the principles of historicism, objectivity and systematics. The main principle is the principle of historicism, which presupposes the point of view of history as a process in its sequential development. According to the principle of historicism, the development of Soviet-Italian relations in the field of aviation during the interwar period is described in the article while taking into account the context of this historical era. This work proposes significant scientific novelty, due primarily to the used source base. The author draws on new archival documents from the Russian State Military Archives, as well as the memoirs of Soviet pilots who took part in the Spanish Civil War. The author presents the conclusion that the Soviet Union sought to maintain intensive relations with the company "Fiat" in order to acquire its newest aircrafts. The second conclusion is that the flight characteristics of the Italian CR.32 planes tested in the Soviet Union were rated quite low, but nonetheless some construction solutions and weaponry systems were later applied by Soviet mechanicians.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.28918

Abstract: The subject of this study's research is the state of the defensive lines of the Russian army's Western front at the dawn of the trench stage of the First World War on the Eastern front. The article's author examines the reports of General of the Infantry K. A. Kondratovich, which were prepared by him on behalf of the front commander-in-chief A. E. Evert. Having visited all four armies of the front with revisions, the general prepared a rich factual material resource. On the basis of this material, the author describes the fortifications erected by the troops both on the front lines and in the rear, analyzes their main defects and how they came about. The author dedicates particular attention to the organizational component, which includes the interaction between the corps and army engineering control bodies. The study applies the systematic approach and the method of system reconstruction on the primary source material, while the author adheres to the principles of historicism, scientific objectivity, and verifiability. Based on the results of the conducted study, the author concludes that the Russian army at the beginning of 1916 was unable to fully adapt to the realities of the trench war. Despite the long respite that the enemy gave, the troops did not manage to sufficiently strengthen their positions. The location of the defensive positions on the Western Front was accidental, and the troops were strengthened where they stopped after the last battle. The organization of defensive work was also often not up to par. The already scarce resources, primarily human resources, were scattered, and tasks were not ranked in order of importance. The principle of unity of command was not observed, notably, corps and army engineers competed with each other. This situation could not give the command of the Russian army confidence in their own defensive lines, chaining large forces and means, and holding down offensive initiatives.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29268

Abstract: The article's research subject is the process of establishing trade and economic relations between Ceylon and other countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, its scope and importance for the country. The author dedicates particular attention to export and import goods and the geography of their origin and destination, and questions the established opinion in historiography that Ceylon in the period under review was a raw materials appendage to the metropolis of Great Britain. In order to solve these aims, the author cites and analyzes archival documents of economic nature compiled by Russian diplomats. The methodological basis of this study is constituted on the principles of historicism, analysis and synthesis, as well as quantitative methods, which allow the analysis of the development course and changes in the foreign trade of Ceylon. The novelty of this study lies in the fact that the establishment of Ceylon's trade and economic relations with foreign countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries is for the first time examined on the basis of Russian archival documents. The author comes to the conclusion that the openness of the Ceylon economy had attracted investments from various countries and the direct trading partners of Ceylon were a number of countries in Europe, North and South America, Asia and Africa.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.28833

Abstract: The article presents a source study analysis of the statistical compilation "The Iron Industry of Southern Russia" for the years 1902 - 1915, and the publication "A Collection of Statistical Information on the Mining Industry of Russia" for the years 1901 - 1911, in relation to the number of workers, their allocation in manufactories and employment occupation. The study's research subject is an in-depth study of the quantitative data concerning the workers presented in the named sources. The author examines in detail the quality and accuracy of the information regarding the number of workers in factories, their allocation in workshops, accommodation and marital status in sections of annual and monthly values. In order to determine the relative accuracy of the number and distribution of workers in manufactories, the author applied mathematical methods. In particular, the author compared the data of various Source tables with the aim of identifying possible inaccuracies and errors, with the Source tables also being subjected to cross-checking. The study's main conclusions are the identification of inaccuracies in the sources' calculations and the detection of typographical errors, the elimination of these faults and the use of corrected data which significantly improves the quality of the original historical material. Additionally, the author proves that the existing errors and inconsistencies do not adversely affect the use of the source content, and their total number and proportion is extremely small in reference to the whole volume of quantitative data, which therefore allows the author to recognize that the collections in question are reliable sources of information.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29043

Abstract: The article examines the contribution of the Minister of National Education S. S. Uvarov to the development of women's education which was part of the Russian education system. With Uvarov's participation, new educational institutions were being established in the western governorates, where there was basically no Russian school for girls, based on the model of the closed institutions set up by the Vedomstvo of Empress Maria. Heading the education board of the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens for nearly one and a half decades, Uvarov used this institution as a model for others and carried out a number of changes aimed at improving both the educational process and its regulation. The methodological basis of this study is the principle of historicism and the historical-biographical method, which allowed the author to analyze the formation of women's institutional education in the context of public policy. The article demonstrates how, in accordance with the general direction of the ministry’s educational policy, most closed women's institutions, as well as men's educational institutions, went through a renewal of personnel structure starting from the late 1830s. The places of class inspectors and teachers were occupied by professionally trained specialists, often undergoing internships abroad. The author concludes that the work of S. S. Uvarov contributed to the significant improvement in the development of training in women's institutions.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29613

Abstract: This paper revisits the concept of “school awareness”, which in previous scholarship was mostly regarded as a result of the penetration of Chinese patriarchal patterns into the Buddhist community against the background of loosened state control during the late Ming Period. Particular attention is directed to the fact that such a viewpoint concerning the Buddhist community existed up to as late as the 18th century. One of the primary examples of "school awareness" at the late stage of its existence is Wenhai Fuju (1685 - 1765), who adopted a series of steps to promote the prestige of the Qianhua branch of the Vinaya school of Chinese Buddhism. In order to examine his activities in detail, this paper synthesizes data from various sources producing a complete, chronologically-arranged biography. The analysis of obtained results demonstrated that the majority of Wenhai Fuju’s endeavors embodying his “school awareness” were in fact driven by the needs and possibilities of interacting with the Yongzheng (1723 - 1735) or Qianlong (1736 - 1795) emperors. This allows the author to conclude that the official authorities expected and approved the aim towards a dominating position of a particular Buddhist school. Hence, it was the impact of imperial policy that had kept up the active support of “school awareness” of the Buddhist monks in China during the 18th century.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29991

Abstract: The article addresses the issue of forming a “new person” in the industry of the USSR in the 1930s on the example of the food industry. The author advances the thesis that mass-copy publications are an invaluable source for a thorough study of this issue. The study examines the activities of the “Nasha Pravda” and “Za Boevye Tempy” newspapers of the "Rot Front" and "Krasnyi Oktyabr" confectioneries in the formation of the “new man” at these enterprises. On the example of these publications, the author examines the basic techniques of shaping and the components of the image of the “new person”. The study applies the descriptive methods for interpreting sources, as well as content analysis in computerized and traditional versions. The author comes to the conclusion that the mass-copy publications used such techniques to construct the “new man” as: the publication of editorial articles that proposed workers specific behavioral patterns and the publication of biographies of “truly socialist workers” in which the life-course and personal qualities of the worker were covered only from the positive side. One of the important features of the mass-copy publication business of the confectionery industry was their primary focus on describing a young woman as a “new person”.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.30000

Abstract: The task of restoring Donbass as the key fuel base of the country was one of the priorities for the Soviet government at the start of the New Economic Policy. With the obvious limitations of external and internal resources, the government relied heavily on labor productivity growth and the dedication of the workers to the cause. Based on an analysis of the reasons behind conflicts and strikes in the mines of Donbass in the early years of the New Economic Policy, the article identifies the "bottlenecks" in the system of labor incentives for miners and also describes the features of the practiced methods of seeking qualified personnel and high performance. The research is based on archival materials preserved in the State Archive of the Russian Federation. This includes above all the collections of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions (F. 5451) and the Central Committee of the Professional Union of Miners of the USSR (F. 5459). The combination of micro and macro approaches has made it possible for the author to consider specific cases and practices in the context of general events in Russia. The study demonstrates that for workers the most important thing was still the material component in the system of labor incentives, expressed in a decent amount and timely payment of wages, ensuring acceptable living conditions and the supply of essential goods. It was not possible to solve these issues in the short time given, but the task of securing skilled workers in the mines of Donbass became more and more urgent. It was precisely this reason that prompted the local trade union and economic bodies to take the uncommon step that involved the allocation of land plots to miners. Despite the fact that the practice of “land distribution” lasted until the end of the 1920s, it could not reverse the situation of high staff turnover and a shortage of skilled workers.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.28801

Abstract: The subject of this research is the principle of state sovereignty which was seriously challenged by humanitarian interventions in the 1990s and early 2000s that were primarily initiated by the United States of America. In developing the concept of humanitarian intervention, which gradually formed into foreign policy, the United States tied to the classical principle of sovereignty the obligation of respecting human rights, which thus transforms sovereignty from the prerogative and exclusive right of a state to act independently into the principle of imposing obligations and designating responsibility. It should be noted that the study of sovereignty, intervention and, consequently, conflicts, is difficult to conduct within the framework of one scientific direction and of one theory. Therefore, for this article, the author used an inter-paradigm approach, linking together existing theories and their elements. As a result, in the eyes of the numerous supporters of the concept of humanitarian interventions, the non-observance of human rights deprived the state of sovereignty and therefore of immunity from interference in its internal affairs, including in military form. The very principle of sovereignty itself was thus recognized as the most important quality of a state, which, in fact, could be somewhat limited. During the course of the study's analysis, the author comes to the conclusion that, notwithstanding the critical importance of protecting human rights throughout the world, intervention is possible only with the approval of the UN Security Council and only when human rights violations threaten to become widespread.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.29177

Abstract: In the 19th century, Russia gradually developed a spiritual crisis, which was especially vividly felt in the second half of the 19th century. However, in the author's opinion, although this trend can be easily recognized, it should be noted that not all churches, neither all monasteries in their life and work and in their spiritual sphere experienced a similar crisis. Many Orthodox institutions in Russia, on the contrary, experienced growth throughout the 19th century and some even flourished.The research object of this study is the “Life-Giving Spring” church situated near Moscow, which is part of the unfinished Catherine Palace in Tsaritsyno. The research subject of this study is microhistory on the example of describing Orthodox life during the 19th century in one church near Moscow. The author used archival materials drawn from the Central Historical Archive of Moscow, as well as from the family archive of the descendants of Kazantsev, one of the priests of the examined church. The archive materials for the first time in historiography introduced into scientific circulation are analyzed through the method of historical reconstruction and are presented in chronological order - during the 19th century. Up to today, the history of this church was only once the research object in the scientific community: the article written by the staff members of the Museum "Tsaritsyno" A. A. Baranova and A. A. Galashevich was published over 25 years ago. The study of the formative origins of one of the most important churches in Moscow and the Moscow region (primarily due to its territorial position, namely, being part of the Catherine Palace complex) is a significant and valuable source for understanding the current process of the Orthodox Renaissance.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0609.2019.3.28910

Abstract: In this article, the author considers the attempts to financially integrate Finland into the sphere of influence of the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th - early 20th centuries, on the example of the monetary circulation in that region. The monetary issue was one of the main issues for both the Finnish society and the Russian government, which sought to reduce the autonomy already formed in the region. The preparation of the monetary reform was initiated several times over several decades, but it had never been realized. The author examines through the materials from the National Archives of Finland the process of interaction between the Russian government and the local governing bodies, in which each of the parties had their own interests in the issue of money circulation in Finland. The results of this interaction and the Russian government's degree of influence were studied using a statistical analysis of the exchange rate of the Russian Ruble and the Finnish Mark during the First World War. On the basis of the conducted research, the author concludes that the Finnish autonomization was enough to prevent with all its force the introduction of monetary reform. But, nevertheless, Finland at that time did not become independent to the extent that it could confidently distance itself from Russia, which was pursuing an intermittent and step-by-step, yet completely unidirectional course towards the financial integration of Finland into its sphere of influence.