The everyday life of the Pskov borderland at the dawn of the Peter the Great era

Kolpakov Maksim Yur'evich PhD in History Associate Professor, the department of World History and Area Studies, Pskov State University 180000, Russia, Pskovskaya oblast', g. Pskov, ul. Leona Pozemskogo, 6, kab. 207 kolpakov.m@gmail.com Other publications by this author

Mikheev Dmitry Vladimirovich ORCID: 0000-0001-9263-0234 PhD in History Associate Professor, Department of World History, Herzen State Pedagogical University of Russia; Senior Researcher, Research Laboratory "Center for the Comprehensive Studies of Regional Security Issues", Pskov State University 191186, Russia, federal city of Saint Petersburg, Saint Petersburg, nab. Moika River, 48 Tankred85@mail.ru Other publications by this author

In 2022, the 350th anniversary of the birth of the great Russian ruler, commander and reformer Peter I is celebrated. It is difficult to find another monarch who has so significantly influenced the fate of his country. The Russian state made a qualitative leap in its modernization in the Peter the Great era, taking a significant place among other European states of that time. Not only residents of Russia itself, but also foreigners were amazed by the changes that have taken place in the country in just a few decades.

The historiography dedicated to Peter, his reforms, and the Peter the Great era in general is extremely rich and has hundreds of works written both in Russia and abroad. V. Naumov pays his attention to the issues of everyday life in the Petrine era ^[1]. S. P. Orlenko ^[2], A.V. Shishov ^[3], V. Yarkho ^[4] dedicated their works to foreigners in the Russian service, including during the reign of Peter I. The works of L. M. Marasinova ^{[5; 6]}, D. K. Uo ^{[7; 8]}, A. B. Dovnar ^[9] and N. S. Borisov ^[10] are devoted to transport communications of the Russian state and neighboring powers at the turn of the XVII–XVIII centuries. Russian Russian roads. However, there are no special studies devoted to the development of the road network and related infrastructure, the anthropology of the road in the Peter the Great era, as there are no specialized studies devoted to transport communications, road everyday life and foreigners' perception of the "Russian road" in the border regions of the Russian state, which had significant specifics in contrast to roads located far from the "frontier".

In this study, we will turn to a special aspect of the Peter the Great era – the state of transport communications and the peculiarities of portly everyday life in the Pskov border region, which played an important role in trade with European states before the construction of St. Petersburg and the conquest of the Baltic territories during the Great Northern War.

For many centuries, the Pskov borderland was the very border that was crossed by numerous travelers, merchants, diplomats and military personnel traveling from Europe to Moscow or returning to their homeland. With the beginning of the active activity of the young Peter, contacts with Europe, and, accordingly, the flow across the border is noticeably increasing. Numerous testimonies left by travelers about this border section of the way from Europe to Russia at the turn of the century give us valuable material for the reconstruction of everyday life in the border area, allow us to assess the quality of roads and road infrastructure in Europe and the Russian state in the late XVII – early XVIII century, before the construction of St. Petersburg and the triumphant end of the Great Northern War. First of all, these are the diaries of two foreigners who were in the Russian military service – the diaries of Generals Patrick Gordon ^{[11; 12; 13]} and Ludwig Nikolai von Allart ^[14], who in the last third of the XVII century happened to use the roads of the Pskov borderland, when the qualitative changes that manifested themselves under the predecessors of Peter I began to give their the first visible results. 

Application of the historical-genetic method in the study of evidence Gordon and Allart allows us to trace the qualitative changes that took place in the borderland communications system in the last third of the XVII century, reconstructing the real history of the roads of the Pskov frontier at the dawn of the Petrine era, to identify the causes of the observed changes. The comparison of the testimonies of foreign travelers provides an opportunity to reconstruct the image of the border roads as fully as possible in the view of foreigners who visited the north-western region of the Russian state in the first years of Peter's reign.

Preparing for the trip. The first thing we will focus on when talking about the border roads in the Peter the Great era is the very preparation for the journey. Crossing long distances always requires preparation, especially if crossing the state border is expected as a result of a long journey.

Seasoned travelers have always carefully prepared for the road, especially those who have had to cross the border more than once at the Pskov turn. Here, one of the most notable examples is the colleague of the young Peter, Patrick Gordon. The Scottish officer used the Pskov route of border roads several times: in 1661, 1666-1667 and 1686. In 1661, having decided to enter the Russian service, Gordon followed the roads of the Belarusian and Livonian possessions of the Polish king ravaged by military actions, to the Pskov frontier. The first trip made a depressing impression on the Scotsman. People were sullen and unfriendly, the general high cost and devastation were disheartening. For the second time in 1666-1667, Gordon left on a visit to his homeland, where the power of the Stuart dynasty had recently been restored. He crossed the Pskov border twice, going to foggy Albion and returning back to Moscow. Finally, in 1686, Gordon once again, using the roads of the Pskov frontier, went to his homeland, where James II Stuart had reigned shortly before. Thus, we can trace the impressions of the Scottish officer from the roads of the Pskov borderland in the dynamics of their development for almost a quarter of a century. In his diaries, Gordon describes his journey in detail, focusing on many elements of the road infrastructure and the life of travelers.

Preparation for the trip, if it took place individually, and not as part of a large embassy or a pre-organized group, began with determining the most convenient route, collecting necessary things, preparing transport and selecting a successful company, since traveling alone was not only boring, but also extremely expensive, and most importantly dangerous. It mattered whether the traveler trusted his fellow travelers, and in the case of a foreigner, whether he understood the language of his companions, since the local population, although they lived in border lands, often did not know a foreign language ^{[15, p. 27]}. In case of conflict situations, a traveler who did not know the language could only rely on the help of foreigners living in large cities, who were there in the service of the Russian tsar, or on commercial matters.

Special difficulties usually arose among people who wanted to leave the borders of the Russian state. It was necessary to prepare travel certificates, letters of recommendation, collect the necessary amounts of money for the road and, if possible, get carts to start the journey. Foreigners who entered the royal service were forbidden to leave the country without the highest permission ^{[2, pp. 112-118]}. In 1686, Gordon specifically notes that the order for his departure was being prepared for at least a month, and in order to guarantee his return to the country, his wife and children were ordered to stay in Moscow ^{[13, p. 87]}. However, despite such difficulties with the preparation of departure, when the appropriate permission was received, the Lieutenant General was allocated carts and an annual salary.

Gordon stops in the diary at numerous meetings with relatives, friends and acquaintances on the eve of the trip. And this is not surprising, because given all the difficulties with the departure of foreign specialists from the country, the event was extraordinary, and many hoped for the help of a traveler to settle their affairs abroad, to transfer some things, money or correspondence. It is noteworthy that despite attempts to establish postal communication, in the era under consideration, the most reliable way was still considered to be sending a letter with a reliable person. At that time, people still relied more on personal trust and familiarity ^{[7, p. 124]}. Going to England in 1686, Gordon received personal and business letters, as well as things that should have been delivered en route, or already upon arrival in foggy Albion. So, among Gordon's personal belongings there were chests with the belongings of his friend, merchant and Danish resident in Moscow Heinrich Butenant, merchant Daniel Hartman and van Som ^{[13, p. 90]}.

Much faster were the collections of Ludwig von Allart and his companions, urgently sent by Augustus II the Strong to help Peter, who was besieging Narva. On September 16, 1700, he received an order to leave from under the walls of besieged Riga. On the morning of September 17, Allart arrived in Mitava (Jelgava), where he met with subordinates attached to the king. In addition to an interpreter, a guide, an adjutant, and several officers, the delegation included 4 engineers ^{[14, s. 15-16]}. And already on September 29, having overcome considerable difficulties, Allart arrived in Pskov, where he stayed for a short time.

Organization of traffic on the road. As in previous centuries, they preferred to go on the road at the most convenient time of the year: in winter, while cold and snow made movement along transport communications relatively convenient and safe, or in the summer months, when warm and dry weather allowed them to enjoy both land and water routes of the border area. Only an urgent matter could force an experienced traveler to go on the road in spring or autumn, when sleet and rain prevented normal movement. Ludwig von Allart mentions great difficulties on the roads of Livonia, which turned into a "dirty swamp" in September, through which carts had to be dragged and pushed manually ^{[14, S. 19-20]}. The quality of the road surface on the roads of the border has always caused complaints from travelers. In some cases, this was caused by the unwillingness of local authorities to improve communications at the border ^{[16, p. 364]}. This is especially characteristic of the first decades of the XVII century, against the background of the slow recovery of the state after the Troubles. The repair of roads required considerable funds, was not systematized and was often carried out in the order of road duty by local peasants ^{[5, p. 132; 6, p. 271]}. However, by the end of the century, positive changes are planned, Gordon during his last trip notes the best quality of the road on the Russian side of the frontier, the best quality of repairs and the appearance of new sections of paved roads ^{[13, p. 126]}.

The speed of movement could depend on a number of aspects, ranging from the weather and ending with the peculiarities of international relations at a particular time. However, a number of factors definitely influenced the speed of movement. First of all, this is the number and composition of the company going on the road, the presence of large luggage, which required the purchase of carts for its transportation. However, there were ways to speed up the movement, for example, by promising an additional fee to the drivers, to make them go faster, including at night. The latter was extremely dangerous, inconvenient and required considerable effort from the traveler and the persons accompanying him. Von Allart mentions that the journey at night had to be done by torchlight ^{[14, s. 19]}. In some cases, a rare opportunity was provided to use unique natural phenomena, for example, Allart made his way from Pskov to Gdov at night by the light of a full moon ^{[14, s. 23]}.

Picking up coachmen and guides for himself, the traveler was forced to closely monitor his temporary companions. Cases of theft and deception on the border roads were far from rare. However, negligence and banal drunkenness were much more common. Gordon mentions that he was in a hurry to reach the border as soon as possible, in connection with which he "promised the drivers money for drinks." Further, Gordon reports: "Without my knowledge, when I was sleeping, drunk drivers went to rest in some house, about 20 versts away, but I woke up, woke them up with strong cuffs and forced them to go on" ^{[13, p. 89]}.

Von Allart also complains about the peasants who provided the carts, their negligence and the poor quality of the horses. However, the episode refers to the Livonian part of his route ^{[14, s. 19]}. It is noteworthy that the same complaints about the extremely poor condition of horses for carts were described by representatives of the English embassy of Earl Carlisle in Swedish Livonia about three decades before these events ^{[17, p. 332-337]}.

Another factor affecting the speed of movement and the comfort of travel was the presence of a good guide who knew all the local roads. The same Gordon writes that after crossing the border, in Livonia, he told one of the locals to take him "by devious ways, where the snow has not completely melted" ^{[13, p. 90]}. It is noteworthy, but despite the fact that it was only February, the weather turned out to be so warm that the snow almost completely melted outside the Russian border and the road to Riga became almost unusable due to the muddy road.

Separately, you can dwell on the issue of expenses during the trip. In addition to buying food and paying for the work of guides and coachmen, it was necessary to regularly change horses and carts. Gordon, who was once deceived at the border by paying for a horse with a depreciated copper coin, scrupulously notes in his diary how the cost of the carts changed from place to place. So he complains that in Novgorod he paid 25 altyn for 10 horses, and in another place for the same 10 horses 1 ruble, 3 altyn, 2 money ^{[13, p. 88]}. The best way to make a deal was if the carts were returning home along a route convenient for the traveler. Then the owner of the cart could take much less money for passing earnings ^{[13, p. 124]}.

The travel time was usually tried to brighten up with a pleasant conversation, if the company allowed, or admiring the beauty of nature and local settlements. For example, Ludwig Allart left in his diaries colorful sketches of most of the towns and fortresses that he met during his journey ^[18]. Gordon notes that part of the journey could be done in a cart or boat, resting or even trying to sleep at this time ^{[11, p. 167]}.

Water spaces have always been a special obstacle on the way. That is why often stops for lunch or even overnight stops were made just before the crossing. Most often there were simply no bridges, and the rivers had to be crossed on rafts and boats, with the help of local peasants who earned money by organizing the crossing ^{[9, pp. 63-64; 15, pp. 28-29]}.

A few words should be said about the water routes. Most researchers note that a dense network of small and large rivers, an abundance of lakes contributed to the development of water communication, which developed by the XVII century to the west of Moscow into a stable, constantly operating system ^{[5, pp. 128-129]}. As in the previous period, rivers by the beginning of the XVIII century remained the main transport highways of the country ^{[6, p. 258]}. The young tsar Peter himself preferred, as far as possible, to move by water, using, on occasion, the navigable routes of Lake Peipsi and the rivers of the northwest: Lovati, Velikaya, Western Dvina ^{[1, p. 218]}. An extensive network of navigable rivers and lakes made it possible to move relatively comfortably in the Pskov and Novgorod lands.

Returning to Russia in August 1686, Patrick Gordon preferred to make a noticeable part of the journey in a boat. On August 21, Gordon and his companions, having dined in Soltsy, were able to reach the Mshagi River in the afternoon. Traveling by boat assumed the presence of guides from local peasants and the possibility of rest during the journey. However, this time the trip demonstrated the danger of water routes: "We sailed by boat down the Mshaga River, and sometimes there was an unusually strong storm at night, so with great difficulty we managed to get into the tributary, where we waited for about 5 hours. When it subsided, we sailed again, with a good wind we went along Lake Ilmen and in the evening arrived at the monastery of St. George, where we spent the night ..." ^{[13, p. 125]}. It is worth noting that water routes have been used in the region for centuries. Back in the middle of the XVI century, English merchants who explored a promising trade route in the Novgorod lands mentioned the same waterways and parking places in monasteries ^{[19, pp. 85-86]}. The problem of overnight accommodation on the way to Novgorod, with the correct distribution of the segments of the way, was solved quite successfully. At the same time, for monasteries located on the route, maintaining the proper operation of the waterway was an important element of their existence and connection with other regions of the state ^{[20, p. 245]}.

Allart and his companions on the way to Narva were also repeatedly forced to cross rivers, and in some cases to move along them, having equipped a raft with improvised means for this ^{[14, s. 19, 23-24]}.

Organization of parking and recreation. The most acceptable option for organizing a rest or overnight stay was a stop at an inn or in an inn. However, all travelers note the almost complete absence of such establishments on the Pskov part of the route. Everyday amenities on the road have always left much to be desired. The decree "On the establishment of inns and guest houses" was issued by Peter I only in 1719 ^{[6, p. 275]}. On the roads of the Pskov frontier, one had to calculate one's route in such a way that each segment of the way fell on a large settlement or monastery, where travelers were happily provided with shelter. However, there were frequent cases when it was necessary to spend the night in the field.

There were much more places for Russian travelers to rest abroad. After crossing the border with the Livonian lands, Gordon reports: "After feeding the horses a little and sending the Pskov ones away, we passed several taverns. This area is not famous and unremarkable.... We spent the night in a tavern or kr?w Rauge; villages that are rare here, as well as taverns, are designated by the names of the nobles to whom they belong" ^{[13, p. 89]}. Traveling a decade and a half later, Allart noted poverty, poor quality of food and an almost complete lack of quality alcohol in roadside taverns on the Livonian side: "However, there was neither beer nor brandy, and water was the best food..." ^{[14, s. 19]}. However, Allart and his companions complained about the lack of good alcohol already in the Russian lands. On September 26, they crossed the river Utroya with difficulty and arrived at Sebezh for the night on a bad road through the village of Dubrova ^{[14, s. 19-20]}. There, the "peasants" provided the travelers with carts and all necessary provisions, except for high-quality alcoholic beverages. As a return courtesy, Allart distributed "some snuff" to several people.

Thus, the availability of high-quality provisions and alcohol became a real problem for a foreign traveler on the roads of the Pskov border region. For this reason, experienced travelers recommended to stock up on everything necessary for the future, if possible, when going on the road.

A special happiness for travelers was the arrival in a major city. The quality of accommodation and food here was often much better, but most importantly, the traveler could meet foreigners here who were in the city on business or on business, ready to provide both shelter and food, more familiar and pleasant, as well as friendly company and entertainment. Gordon, who spent many years in the Russian service, notes that in Pskov he was warmly welcomed by voivode Mikhail Grigoryevich Romodanovsky, his "old acquaintance". Already abroad in Riga, Russian he was accepted by local foreign service people ^{[13, pp. 89-90]}.

Allart's opinion about his stay in Pskov was ambiguous. Although the city itself and its fortress, which he, as an officer who arrived in the Russian service, was allowed to inspect, seemed to the general beautiful and densely populated. But the impression was spoiled by the provided place of rest and catering: "I am located in the suburbs, in the Lubeck courtyard, opposite the Holy Trinity Church. The merchant who owns it was under arrest, but could leave. I was well received, but poorly fed. I had to eat in front of my tent. I got enough food, but the beer was of poor quality, the wine was diluted, the honey (drink) was tasteless" ^{[14, s, 21-22]}.

Meetings: foreigners, Russians, officials and military. As already noted, an important element of everyday life on the road were the numerous meetings that the traveler experienced. We have already noted that foreign travelers had to communicate with local peasants who equipped carts and coachmen. In addition to the previously mentioned case of drunkenness of coachmen, neither Allart nor Gordon indicate conflict situations with local residents. It seems to us that this was due to the fact that as foreigners were increasingly invited to the Russian service, residents of the Pskov border region reacted to foreign guests with more restraint and calmness.

In addition to ordinary residents, travelers had to meet with officials and soldiers responsible for the security of the border. And if Gordon had many friends and acquaintances among local officials and the military, which simplified his communication with the local authorities, then Allart's impression of communication with the Pskov chiefs was somewhat spoiled: "The vice-governor invited me to his house, I was taken to the house where the first boyar received me; it was an old man, who received me rather rudely, got up only when I went into his room; apples were put on my plate, they were cut, a bottle of vodka was brought, they invited me to sit on a bench on which an officer was also sitting, he drank with me, then we drank wine. When the glasses were empty, they brought a glass of honey, since the conversation did not work out, I said goodbye, the boyar did not see me off" ^{[14, s. 22]}.

However, Lieutenant General Gordon also had unpleasant memories from meeting with customs officers when passing through Pskov and Novgorod. We have already mentioned that Gordon, who traveled to Europe on his own business, transported a large number of things that did not belong to him. The abundant luggage aroused the increased interest of customs officers in Novgorod, which created big problems for the traveler: "I sent again to find out the will of the governor, who said the same thing: As for him, I can leave with his full permission, and at my request provided me with two archers for an escort. But when I heard that the customs officer was gathering all his "bird-catchers" and intended either not to let me out of the apartment or to detain me on the road, I sent to the governor again, wanting to know if it was by his order and whether he would allow such violence. He sent me to say that he did not do this, but he cannot interfere in the case of customs officers, because they have orders directly from Moscow; I can do as I see fit. The customs officer, having learned about this, came to me and asked if I really wanted to go and would not tolerate the baggage inspection, so that I would allow it to be sealed and placed in a church or some reliable independent place until a decree came from Moscow. At first, indeed, I offered exactly this in order not to be detained, but now, with the encouragement, or rather, the connivance of the governor, I refused. I sent a petition to the governor for my hand with a complaint against the customs officer and his colleagues for insulting me by putting guards on me and my luggage, and detained me on the way, to my great detriment and harm; I asked to write it down here and send it to Moscow. When the complaint was accepted, I came forward and, without trying to use force and without being subjected to it, proceeded through the city, over the bridge over the Volkhov and continued on my way" ^{[13, p. 88]}. It is noteworthy that already in the Swedish possessions, in Riga, Gordon paid the customs officers for the transported goods all the necessary duties ^{[13, p. 90]}.

Qualitative changes in transport communications of the Pskov border area. Let's summarize some results. For any foreigner, the main unpleasant moment in the journey, in addition to the hardships of the road itself, has always been the quality of food and drinks. At the same time, travelers complained about the quality of provisions both on the Russian side and in the possessions of the Polish and Swedish kings. Travelers invariably call the picturesque nature, pleasant meetings with old friends and the opportunity to get acquainted with local sights and fortifications the main pleasant moment on the road, which was especially interesting for the experienced military engineer Allart. Although the general was not completely satisfied with what he saw in the Pskov fortress, his picturesque sketches in his diary indicate that the unusual architecture of the city and its surroundings attracted his attention.

During his reign, Peter I will pay a lot of attention to the improvement of roads ^{[10, p. 77]}, however, even in the first years of the reign of the young tsar, positive aspects are noted in the improvement of road communication and related infrastructure. What are the differences we can observe on the roads of the Peter the Great era. It can be noted right away that up to the beginning of the Great Northern War, the foundation of St. Petersburg and the expansion of the borders of the Russian state, the roads of the Pskov border region played an extremely important role, and accordingly, attention to them was increased. We have already told about the excessive activity of customs officials above. But there were also more pleasant changes for travelers. The roads themselves and the associated infrastructure continued to improve. The improvement of their quality is indirectly evidenced by the fact that travelers repeatedly indicate that they continued their journey at night. A poor-quality and dangerous road does not usually allow such luxury for a traveler. Gordon himself noted in his diaries, not without pleasure, that more and more often there are sections of paved road. However, it is worth making a reservation here that he makes such notes already near Novgorod. A significant advantage and at the same time disadvantage of the roads of the Pskov border remains the abundance of rivers and lakes, which on the one hand created obstacles when moving, requiring special attention to the organization of crossings, and on the other hand allowed a significant part of the route to be done by water, in the presence of boats or rafts.

Neither Allart nor Gordon mention crimes on the road in their diaries dating back to the Peter the Great era. This can be attributed to the period of relative calm experienced by the country in the last third of the XVII century. on the eve of the Great Northern War. The memory of the hardships of the war and the unrest associated with the copper riot is a thing of the past, and therefore the roads have become much calmer. The only annoying incidents were conflicts with customs officers, the officials' disdain for Allart and the drunkenness of the drivers who accompanied Gordon to the border.

Comparing roads on territories adjacent to the Pskov border, both Allart and Gordon prefer the Russian road, calling its main disadvantage the lack of related infrastructure (taverns, hotels or inns). The undoubted advantage of the roads of the Russian state was the Yamskaya chase system, which ordinary travelers could also use in the era under consideration. Thus, while maintaining its obvious advantages, the Russian part of the border roads near the Pskov border continued to be modernized, although, as practice showed, many issues related to infrastructure were not fully resolved, which required additional preparation and route planning from travelers heading to Russia.

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