DOI: 10.25136/2409-868X.2022.5.38145

Abstract: The subject of the study is the daily routine of the Pskov border region in the description of foreign travelers who visited the Russian state at the beginning of the reign of Peter the Great. The testimonies of travelers, diplomats and the military allow to trace the first changes related to the road infrastructure, the attitude towards foreigners and the way of life of the local population observed in the last quarter of the XVII century. The impression that the Pskov road made on travelers often left its indelible imprint on the entire perception of the Russian state by foreigners, and through numerous letters, diaries and reports, the image of Russia in Europe was laid on the eve of large-scale Peter's reforms. Up until the beginning of the Great Northern War, the foundation of St. Petersburg and the expansion of the borders of the Russian state, the roads of the Pskov border played an extremely important role in maintaining contacts with European countries, which led to increased attention to them both from the tsarist administration and foreign travelers. The quality of roads and related infrastructure in the border region continued to improve during the period under review. Travelers compared the sections of their route to the roads after crossing the border. Many foreign travelers noted the best quality of the road in the possessions of the Russian tsar in comparison with Polish and even Swedish possessions.

DOI: 10.25136/2409-868X.2021.5.35653

Abstract: The XV – XVII centuries mark the intensification of trade, political and cultural contacts between the European countries and the Russian State. The large territory of the country, geographical peculiarities, road network, trade and political interests required long winter travels from the Europeans. The final data array, which describes the experience of European travelers is comprised of 27 essays and  reflects 32 visits or stay in the territory of the Russian State. From the representative range of sources, the author determines the characteristics of winters, assessments of the quality of winter roads, descriptions of clothes and road equipment, main methods of transportation, stories about the peculiarities of winter indoor and outdoor night lodging, common and uncommon methods against cold weather, and methods of treating freeze burns. The subjectivity or objectivity of “winter” testimonies of the foreigners was established in accordance with the climatic characteristics of simultaneous regional winter seasons in the texts of the Russian chronicles. The results of analysis of the natural and climatic conditions in Europe and the Russian State against the background of changes in heliophysical parameters allow asserting that European travelers of the so-called period of “Little Ice Age” came from the region with longer or colder winters. In the European part of the Russian State, abnormal freezing temperatures were marked later and not so longstanding. Over the three centuries of winter travels to Muscovy and trips to the domains of the tsar, the Europeans have adopted the experience and technologies of the local population, as well as developed the original recommendations for foreigners, who desired to live and work in the conditions of the “Russian winter”. A new stage in adaptation of economic activity and everyday life of the population to the impact of cold climate would become possible after the emergence of new types of transport and improvement of communication system in Modern Age.