Philosophy and Culture - rubric Ethics

Abstract: The paper is devoted to reconstruction of J.S.Mill’s understanding of justice (mainly according to the fifth chapter of Utilitarianism). Despite common tendency in utilitarianism to consider justice as a secondary and auxiliary moral concept Mill tried to give the idea of justice as high status as it has in live moral experience. For the purpose of this Mill distinguished different kinds of utility. According to Mill, the idea of justice corresponds to one of these kinds, which meets the need in security. In order to justify this approach and to make it acceptable by the untilitarianists, as well as to the adherents of the ethics of tradition and common sense Mill anticipated some problems which would be actively discussed in our days and proposed a number of controversial thesis regarding the essence of morality, the criteria of right actions, and the content of the principles of justice.

Abstract: The article criticizes the consumer society and the idea of “the golden milliard”. The author touched upon the old thought that it often took just to limit one’s wishes to find true happiness. Large consumption and greed bring only antagonism and hatred, class struggle, revolution and thousands of deaths.

Abstract: Resume: the author of the article has tried to reconstruct some key tendencies in the history of the West-European social ethics based on changes in the classifications of forms of justice. The starting point of this research is Hugo Grotius’ classification of justice underling the secondary nature of the distributive component of justice. Grotius’ classification marked the beginning of new European views on justice. Grotius criticized Aristotelian approaches to the social ethics and sought other antique teachings to prove his views such as Cicero’s work “On Duties”.

Keywords: philosophy, morals, ethics justice, forms, distribution, exchange, Grotius, Aristotle, Cicero.

Abstract: Review: the main content of the article is a review of such concepts in philosophical anthropology which ascribe the status of the moral object to certain creatures or material things based on their ‘inherent worth’ or ‘natural rights’. It is shown that the mentioned status does not depend on inherent worth because such the moral object is formed under the influence of a number of objective cultural and historical factors

Keywords: philosophy, morals, bio ethics, environmental studies, anthropocentrism, bio centrism, eco centrism, inherent worth, personal goal, metaphysics, naturalism

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2018.12.27905

Abstract: This article is dedicated to the analysis of the concept of nihilism in the philosophy of Nietzsche and Heidegger, as well as ethnical concept of Heidegger’s thinking. Emphasis is made on determining the multivalence of the concept of nihilism in the works of both philosophers, as well as the comprehension distinctions. The author explores the peculiarities of Heidegger’s interpretation of metaphysics as nihilism, and analyzes the question on the essence of thinking that preponderates metaphysics. The article elucidates the ethical aspect of Heidegger’s thought to demonstrate certain aspects that, perhaps, led the philosopher to participation in the national-socialist movement. In the course of this study was used the method of comparative analysis of philosophical positions of the thinkers along with the comprehensive analysis of the existing sources of this topic. Nietzsche’s nihilism as the reconsideration of values, takes place within the categorical net of moral Platonism, only being “inverted” by Nietzsche. Therefore, his philosophy of life is the reconsideration of foundations of moral being of a human. Unlike Nietzsche, Heidegger understands nihilism as thinking that does not raise a question on the nothingness, in other words, as metaphysics. Heidegger believes that overcoming metaphysics means deepening in the thought on being. The specificity of Heidegger’s philosophy is that human, freedom, duty, and responsibility are viewed exceptionally in light of the thought on being, outside the idea of the subject of morality. Ethics is possible as a genuine “whereness” in terms of the realness of being, obedience to it. The danger of such “ethos” lies not only in the fact that the responding to being thought is subjected to deception, but also that by overcoming the metaphysics of a subject towards the initial thinking, we can lose the idea of oneself as a responsible beginning of life, when the all of the said and done is the personal choice and decision.

Keywords: morality, existence, being, ethics, thinking, Heidegger, value, Nietzsche, nihilism, metaphysics

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.7.7762

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2022.8.38651

Abstract: The article analyzes the problem of the correlation of morality and ideology. The author believes that the distinction between morality and ideology can be made only at the level of their genealogy: if ideology is a socio-cultural product, then morality is rooted in human nature, in "moral intuitions", which medieval scholastic philosophy called synderesis. In modern ethics, synderesis can be identified with the neurophysiological prerequisites of morality. Opponents of this approach argue that, firstly, it excludes free will, and secondly, it does not explain the content of moral values and norms in any way. The author of the article criticizes these statements and offers his original theory of synderesis. The article draws an analogy between ethics and intuitionistic mathematics, which considers mathematical objects as the results of intellectual construction based on initial intuitions. Ethical objects should also be considered as constructions based on innate intuitions. Moral intuitions do not exclude free will, since they rely on rationality inherent in our nature, the main property of which is the ability to make decisions regardless of external stimuli and internal states. In addition, these intuitions influence the content of our norms, as they are the "operators" of their construction and are included in the "final product".

Keywords: justification, feasibility, construction, freedom, rationality, synderesis, intuition, ideology, ethics, moral

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2021.2.35364

Abstract: The subject of this research is the philosophy of the Tyumen philosopher Yuri Mikhailovich Fyodorov – a representative of the Tyumen philosophical tradition, who focused on the problems of ethics, namely practical implementation of the ethical in the context of development of the North and establishment of a new society from fundamentally different individuals. Tyumen philosophers were concerned with the question of how to form a single moral essence out of the agonistic society. For solving this problem, Yuri Mikhailovich Fyodorov turned to Neo-Platonism, cosmism, and Russian religious philosophy, as well as paid particular attention to the question of elevation of human to a moral entity. The ways for such subjectification proposed by Fedorov are examined in this article. The scientific novelty consists in the fact that the philosopher is not widely known, as well as in the emphasis on the process of subjectification, epimeleia heautou in interpretation of M. Foucault, or the self-nurturing practices. It is illustrated that creativity, freedom, kindness and love are the key practices of self-nurturing which Y. M. Fyodorov indicated as the procedures of subjectification. From his perspective, these four concepts are the goal and practice for an individual, who seeks to surpass his own foundations. The philosophy of Y. M. Fyodorov aims to substantiate the unity of man with man, man with being; as well as attach meaning, value and vector to human life; contra pose something genuine, profound and eternal to the concepts that deprive an individual of the right to power over himself and the right to the long-term existence.

Keywords: neoplatonism, ethics, subject, subjectivity, subjectivation, the care of the self, practices of the self, cosmism, russian philosophy, philosophy

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2019.11.31261

Abstract: This article is dedicated to the study of ontological ethics of V. V. Bibikhin. He does not separate human from other types of animals; and ethics is interpreted as a revived Aristotelian ethology – science of the natural behavior. However, Bibikhin does not transport data of biology as a science onto the philosophical soil. He creates the original philosophy, which only at certain points intersects with biology, but overall, is a distinct phenomenology – “vision” of the natural. Reading texts of the philosopher, the key one was the hermeneutic paradigm: the desire to understand the delivered, following the thought of the author, while noticing the difficulties faced by this thought. The following conclusions were made: 1) return to oneness with the world is the fundamental goal of ontological ethics; 2) based on distinction of culture (inauthentic) and truth (space of strangeness), V. V. Bibikhin underlines the capability of natural existence of a human, captured in raw emotion, pure presence and willful action; 3) human essence is understood as “vision” – outlook on the prospects of personal growth and success in life; V. V. Bibikhin believes that human is a religious animal, and religion is the continuation of biology of the living; 4) living creature is a self-existent machine included into the global machine; at the same time, machine is understood based on the idea of Primum Mobile Aristotle and is juxtaposed to the artificial machine, which does not exist independently; 5) freedom consists in seeing or not seeing of the personal (good); formula of the personal, i.e. willful action, is conveyed in the words “unable to do otherwise”.

Keywords: weirdness, Living being, automate, freedom, morality, vision, truth, ontological ethics, culture, presence

Abstract: By understanding the problem of life and death from the philosophical point of view, human can learn a wiser attitude to his life. We should not run away from thinking about the end of our life. We should accept it and appreciate all what reminds us of vanity of life and our activities. This is what Karl Jasper called the theory of ‘borderline situations’ in existentialism. In his theory Jasper talked about existential meaning of life. Based on Jasper, existentially our life never ends.

Keywords: philosophy, self-cognition, meaning of life, human, borderline situation, ideals, human being

Abstract: This article is devoted to the principle and origins of philosophy which peculiarity is the absence of an object. This way, philosophy can be called ‘the science about ignorance’ and addresses to invisible (unconceivable) matter. It is possible to address to it only if we allow ‘invisible’ to ‘happen’, in other words, if we treat it both as a method and a goal. Based on his study, the author concluded that the method of philosophical learning comes from understanding the morals, so we have all rights to say that philosophy has an ‘ethical essence’.

Keywords: philosophy, ethics, morals, nothing, invisible, the other, transcend, thinking, Kant, Schweizer

Abstract: Philosophers have been debating whether there is a rational basis of morals for three centuries by now. The debates on this very important topic have not led to any results, which can be explained by the diversity of incompatible visions and approaches to this topic as well as uncertain interpretation of key terms and concepts and general uncertainty of the discussed issue. The main goal of the article is to clarify the meaning and general logic of the issue which is an essential condition for a productive discussion and solution. The article defends David Hume’s idea about nonderivability of statements about what we ‘ought’ from what there ‘is’, i.e. the idea that it is impossible to understand grounds of morals on the basis of knowledge about the world order. The article also contains a critical analysis of modern literature on philosophy and attempts to argue against this Hume’s statement or give a completely different meaning to it. The article is ended with the statement that a rational argumentation of fundamental morals is logically impossible and, moreover, completely useless from the practical point of view because these principles create a unified system of human values which are formed and internalized by the means of natural and social factors. In other words, people adopt these values disregarding the fact whether they have a rational basis or not.

Keywords: philosophy, morals, basis, explanation, belief, knowledge, values, norms, is (existing), ought (the must), imperative.

Abstract: The article is devoted to design studies of the ‘evil’ by Vasily Zenkovsky — historian, philosopher and participant of a philosophical process discussing the following questions: Does human responsible for all his actions? Are the abuse of power and freedom the same things? Is following of God a forced process? Is the evil real? Is the evil absolute? Can it be overcome? The author also describes dialectics of attitudes towards the evil and talks about the integral world perception and organic synthesis in mono-dualism?

Keywords: philosophy, good, evil, dualism, mono-dualism, ethics, faith, organic synthesis, Zenkovsky, freedom.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2019.11.31554

Abstract: This article raises a question on determination of ethical principles in the activity of scholars within the framework of modern research corporations. The author analyzes the discourse on the ethical imperatives of scientific ethos of R. Merton, as well as presents their critics with S. Fuller and J. Ziman. The article demonstrates that the critical study of imperatives is just; they are not widely implemented for the realities of “big science” as the initially did not reflect the essence of scientific activity nor consider the technical rationality of science and production of scientific knowledge; however, they clearly reflect the scholar’s proclivity for the truth as a value of scientific ethos. Leaning on the concept of “technoscience”, the author suggests relying not on the ethical imperatives of the modern scientific activity, but outline the values of scientific cognition and system of prohibitions intended to protect these values. The study determines the two fundamental values of modern science – truth and social responsibility. The aforementioned values should be protected by a number of taboo within the framework of activity of the modern scholars. This implies the traditional prohibitions of scientific ethics, such as prohibition on falsification and fabrication of scientific knowledge, forms of plagiarism, or those that shield social responsibility and transform throughout history.

Keywords: value, negative ethics, moral imperatives, Ziman, Fuller, Merton, science ethics, truth, social responsibility, Guseinov

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2018.11.28376

Abstract: This article examines the question of moral justification of the use of genetic modification technologies of human embryos and gametes. Recent experiments in China on the genetic modification of embryos to make children’s cells resistant to human immunodeficiency virus, cholera and pox, made this problem extremely relevant and extensively discussed in the society. The author cites arguments, made by the scholars and philosophers for and against allowability of genetic modification. It is emphasized that the scholars in the area of medical and biological sciences fear of causing harm to the health of future genetically modified people, while the philosophers are concerned with other problems. The problem of limiting autonomy is one of the most debatable within the framework of philosophy. For illustrating the arguments, the author presents the materials from the history of science, recent developments in editing on human embryos and gametes, philosophical insights and international documents. Having analyzes the arguments of the parties, the author comes to the conclusion that the genetic modification of human embryos and gametes should not be prohibited, although as any other technology, this one can carry advantages and disadvantages; as well as the implementation of such technology is capable of changing social practices (slippery slope argument). In some circumstances it is necessary to restrict the application of these technologies. The author suggest the basic principles of using such types of technologies.

Keywords: gene modifying of embryos, Habermas, autonomy, CRISPR/Cas9, human enhancement, bioethics, scientific ethics, He Jiankui, research ethics, medical ethics

Abstract: The article is devoted to the analysis of the connection between Kant’s epistemology and ethics. The Kant’s idea of ethical absolutism is in essence a consequence of the erroneous interpretation of morality as a special sort of “knowledge” and, accordingly, a result of the illegitimate insertion into an ethical discourse the apriorist and constructivist methodology.

Keywords: philosophy, ethics, absolutism, epistemology, gnoseocentrism, cognitivism, empiricism, apriorism, constructivism, ethical naturalism

Abstract: The main cause of theoretical discussions and disputes about the origin and functions of morals is the difference in methodological and world perception principles forming the basis of ethical theories. Part of the problem is also the absence of generally accepted interpretation of the key term, morals. A common definition of the morals would allow to minimize the dissidences caused by terminology with multiple meanings. It would also allow to considerably narrow the scope of issues related to ethics. This article contains a critical analysis of approached to defining morals. The author underlines the following common errors: 1) confusion of the two functionally different use of the terms ‘morals’ – as a descriptive concept denoting a specific social and psychological phenomenon, and as an estimating term expressing some kind of a positive attitude to certain motives and behavior; 2) equation of morals and customs, therefore the variety of customs is interpreted as the variety of ‘morals’; 3) defining morals from the point of view of ‘higher values’ thus specific moral values are substituted by the others. Moreover, when giving the definition of morals, many researchers stress out the contents of moral principles and norms while the actually important indicator of its specific nature is the unique intention or ‘the must’. In those few cases when this intention is recognized as an essential feature of morals (for instance, in Kant’s works) when it is interpreted as a speculative ‘necessity’ deprived of the ‘desire material’ and any support in human psyche. The author of the article makes an assumption that the only way of existence of the moral intention is the feeling of moral duty as a special reality of individual and public consciousness which forms the common empire basis for theoretical (scientific and philosophical) interpretation and, consequently definition of the moral phenomenon and its special features.

Keywords: philosophy, morals, ethics, definition, phenomenon, intention, intuition, value, reflection, the must.

Abstract: The article well shows that a traditional claim against non-violence ethics disguising simple helplessness and cowardice is beneath any criticism. However, imperative non-violence can hide a spiritual and psychological pragmatics of another kind – intention of a subject to avoid any risks in the sphere of moral improvement. The author of the article assumes that non-violence ethics is indeed an escape from the moral risk, and this tendency ruins the basic moral about sincere starvation towards the other person’s well-being. This study is based on such concepts as L. N. Tolstoy’s moral doctrine and M. Weber’s phenomenology.

Keywords: philosophy, ethics, morals, duty, responsibility, perfection, non-violence, risk, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Weber.

Abstract: The given article analyzes pluses and minuses of the utilitarian ethics as the grounds for moral criteria of the decision making process which touches the interests of future generations. The author shows that utilitarianism does not have any difficulties with involvement of future generations into the moral community and this is the advantage compared to moral conceptions based on agreement. However, it also requires the discounting of future benefits and costs which in its turn demands special ethical grounds. The author shows the conditional and situation nature of all arguments for the benefit of discounting and makes a conclusion that utilitarian approach cannot be the only one officially recognized methodology of ethics of the future. Utilitarian methods of decision making process including the analysis of benefits and costs play an important role in social and ethical researches dedicated to the problem of protection of interests of future generations but they must be combined with other ways and methods of discovering of the public good from the point of view of generation relations.

Keywords: philosophy, morals, ethics, economics, utilitarianism, justice, future, discounting, resources, eco systems.

Abstract: The article descries the history of researches in the sphere of ethics of academic community from R. Merton up to our time and makes certain conclusions about further development of ethics of academic community. The author lays an emphasis on the study of existing mechanisms of ethical regulation not only within the academic community but also in other related spheres such as education and business organizations. At the end of the article the author makes a conclusion about a possibility to adopt certain mechanisms of ethical regulation of ethics in academic community from corporate governance and business ethics.

Keywords: philosophy, academic community, applied ethics, ethics of science, university, academic institution, ethical regulation, code of ethics, corporation, science.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2014.4.11646

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2014.4.64232

Abstract: Moral statements always have a universal or generalized meaning this way or another. They are universal at least because these statements are based on standard generalizations in accordance with values that are typical for particular cultural environment. The level of universality of thinking including moral thinking develops historically and increases as the abilities for generalization and abstracting grow. The starting point in abstracting is the understanding of particular situations and communications, decision making process and evaluations. Based on the conceptual reconstruction of particular episodes from Homer’s poems the author of the article analyzes different forms of generalization made on the basis of a concrete situation. Such generalization is usually performed by the means of the following: 1) sayings that participants of particular situations address to one another; 2) advise given by other people regarding the situation; 3) participants comparing their goals and desires with the opinions of ‘imaginary others’ including ‘generalized’ and ‘sacral’ figures; 4) speech of a poet who expresses his opinion ‘above the situation’ and ‘above personalities’; 5) comparison of decisions made in particular situations with universal values; 6) expression of general sentences made on the basis of opinions that arise in a particular situation.

Keywords: morals, universality, universalism, moral genealogy, universalization of valuable statements, ways of universalization, mutuality, communication, Homer, epos.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2014.5.11935

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2014.5.64932

Abstract: The article is devoted to the main ideas of the ethics of non-violence offered by a famous modern philosopher Abdusalam Huseynov. Ethics of non-violence are being viewed in terms of the issue of social justice. The author of the present article views the terms ‘violence’ and ‘non-violence’ in comparison with the term ‘justice’. Ethics of nonviolence are viewed as an attempt to implement the principles of justice in the life of the modern society. Definition of justice as it usually appears in the ethics of non-violence is also analyzed. According to the author, ethics of non-violence are the reflection of modern realities. Therefore the author tries to underline the main ideas of ethics of non-violence that can be used when implementing the principles of justice in the modern society. The author studies ethics of non-violence in terms of the problems of social justice and from the point of view of the unity of all spheres of social life as well as interconnection and interdependence of social needs, interests and values. Abdusalam Huseynov’s ethics of non-violence are quite an interesting and original concept that reflects views and desires of particular social layers and groups. Non-violence is seen as a post-violence stage in the fight for social justice. According to the author, it is necessary to carry out a better research and analysis of the main provisions of ethics of non-violence with reference to today’s and future social realities.

Keywords: justice, freedom, equality, violence, non-violence, morals, ethics, good, evil.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.7.62944

Abstract: The article is devoted to theodicy and its role in Kant’s and Dostoevsky’s philosophies. The author of the article tries to show that the problem of theodicy appeared in Kant’s and Dostoevsky’s work as a part of the question about the moral ideal, freedom and responsibility. Despite different approaches and quite obvious difference in their concepts of rationality as well as philosophizing methods, both of these philosophers have many topics in common. In particular, they both talked about the relation between the absolute and personal freedom, from one side, and the problem of the moral idea form the other. Both Kant and Dostoevsky were also interested in the problem of self-will and how it relates to freedom and autonomy. However, despite the philosophers’ belief that it was impossible to solve the problem of theodicy, the author shows that Kant and Dostoevsky had very different definitions of freedom as well as borders and logic of moral reasoning.

Keywords: philosophy, ethics, Kant, Dostoevsky, theodicy, freedom, absolute, autonomy, ideal, morals.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2016.7.19003

Abstract: This article subjects to analysis the question of whether it is legal to prescribe to sexual shame the status of the moral emotion. This question emerges due to the fact that moral within the framework of prevailing in the modern ethics theoretical paradigm, is being viewed as a combination of values and norms orienting each person to refuse to cause harm to others, help him, and care for him. Sexual shame is not directly connected with this normative content, thus its moral character becomes questioned. The author determines the two approaches that are used to eliminate such doubt. The first is aimed at proving the moral importance of sexual bans, in relation to which sexual shame is a sanction. The second – appeals to the meaning of sexual in order for a moral subject to form and preserve the ability to self-regulation. The subject of this research is the ethical concepts that unite the first and the second arguments; while the direct task consists in the assessment of their theoretical accomplishment. This is how the following historical-ethical sequence emerges: Vladimir Solovyev – Max Scheller – David Velleman. The methodological research is based upon the supposition that using the analysis of anthropological conditions and psychological mechanisms of moral experience, it is possible to attain a number of justified, although auxiliary, arguments in favor of expansion of the boundaries of the normative content of moral beyond the limits of requirements associated with the good of others.

Keywords: M. Scheler, V. S. Solovyev, sexuality, shame, sanctions, emotions, morality, ethics, philosophy, D. Velleman

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2016.7.68067

Keywords: M. Scheler, V. S. Solovyev, sexuality, shame, sanctions, emotions, morality, ethics, philosophy, D. Velleman

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.8.4826

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.8.63106

Abstract: Currently ethical codes and ethical regulation in the higher education institutions become more and more popular in the USA, the Western European states and Russia. At the same time structure and organization of ethical regulation are not clearly defined, and some researchers deprive ethical regulation of the very term “ethical”. The nature of this matter is quite ambiguous.

Keywords: philosophy, Code, University, regulation, ethics, professional, corporate, compliance, higher educational institution, management.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2015.8.15718

Abstract: The article is devoted to the detection of distinction of philosophical concepts of Nietzsche and Shestov. Nietzsche's and Shestov's philosophies are compared through the prism of ideas of philosophy of Nietzsche: will to power and nihilism. These ideas are fixed in the form of polar concepts, i.e. the concepts that present the two opposite points of view. So, the main thesis of Shestov's philosophy about the faith that cancels the evil previously committed seems comparable to the negative sense of these polar concepts. In the final part of the article Nietzsche's philosophy in general is comprehended through Shestov's ideas. The author sees the key to understnading the philosophy of both philosophers in thei concept of will. Special attention is paid to the analysis of the conflict between will and the past which is differently resolved by Nietzsche and Shestov. Ethics of generosity of Nietzsche and ethics of boldness of Shestov – this is how the author offers to characterize the two philosophical projects on overcoming of the powerlessness of will in relation to the necessary past. The main method of research used by the author is the comparative analysis. The author compares Nietzsche's and Shestov's philosophy involving interpretations of their ideas by Vladimir Bibikhin, Hannah Arendt and Gilles Deleuze. The novelty of the research consists in the original analysis of distinction of the two ways of thinking as they ae presented in Nietzsche's and Shestov's concepts. The distinction between reasoning and will based on Hannah Arendt's ideas correlates with the opposite understanding of the subject by Nitsshche and Shestov. In Nietzsche's philosophy the will acts as a nigilistic concept in essence, i.e. denying self-sufficiency of life and the world in general. Overcoming nihilism of will and its powerlessness to change the past Nietzsche refuses from will in favor of a complete contemplation/acceptance of identity of and the world. Shestov's philosophy, on the contrary, presents the apology of will that through faith finds the power over the past and the world in general. The obvious antagonism shown during comparison of the two philosophers helps to better highlight the thought of each philosopher.

Keywords: ethics of generosity, ressentiment, good morals, reason, faith, will to power, nihilism, will, ethics of boldness, subject

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2015.8.66936

Keywords: ethics of generosity, ressentiment, good morals, reason, faith, will to power, nihilism, will, ethics of boldness, subject

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2015.9.16343

Abstract: The subject of the research is the concept of faith of Lev Shestov and Lev Tolstoy. The object of the research is Lev Tolstoy's religious and moral teaching and Lev Shestov's philosophy. Special attention is paid to the relationship between faith and reason, faith and morals and the difference in the philosophers' views on human's attitude to the absolute beginning of the world. The purpose of the research is to show general 'ethical' orientation of Shestov's and Tolstoy's philosophies and to analyze their subjective attitude to the world that was based on different grounds. The research methodology involves integrated analysis of sources on the research subject. The researcher has also used the method of comparative analysis. The main conclusions of the research are the following: while Shestov viewed faith and reason as mutually exclusive, Tolstoy saw faith as the proof of reason and reason as the 'way' to faith. Shestov also opposed faith to morals while Tolstoy considered fath to be an essential prerequisite for moral behavior. Nevertheless, both Shestov's and Tolstoy's philosophies in fact have the general ethical intention: Shestov views the idea of faith as the reliance of morals not as a result of the 'possible' and the 'must' restrictions but as a result of nondetermined decisions of an absolute subject. Tolstoy related the idea of morals to the highest 'Self' that was viewed as the ideal and attitude to which was created within the space of moral perfection.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2015.9.67052

Keywords: faith, morals, reason, subject, world in general, ethics, responsibility, God, good, evil

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.11.10121

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.11.63553

Abstract: George Moor’s basic theorem about indefinability of goodness has been the topic of debates in metaethics up to the present. It is quite understandable because the solution of this question has an influence on many ethic programs. However, this problem is mostly solved a priori and just in theory. The author of the article describes how it is possible to solve the problem from the point of history and philosophy. If, in spite of the evident proof that goodness has a ‘simple’ and ‘absolute’ meaning and therefore it is an indefinable concept, history and philosophy provide certain definitions of this term, then Moor’s position can be corrected. If not, then Moor’s theorem will be proved a posteriori. The author of the article analyzes definitions (and proof that there are no definitions) of goodness in ancient philosophy from the first Indian philosophers to Sextus Empiricus.

Keywords: George Moor’s basic theorem about indefinability of goodness has been the topic of debates in metaet, this problem is mostly solved a priori and just in theory. The author of the article describes how i, in spite of the evident proof that goodness has a ‘simple’ and ‘absolute’ meaning and therefore it i, history and philosophy provide certain definitions of this term, then Moor’s position can be corrected. If not, then Moor’s theorem will be proved a posteriori. The author of the article analyzes definitions (and

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2014.11.10886

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2014.11.65731

Abstract: The present article is devoted to an important method of Immanuel Kant’s critical philosophy – transcendental deduction. The author of the article focuses on how this method is used in Kant’s main woks on practical philosophy such as ‘Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals’ and ‘Critique of Practical Reason’. The purpose of the article is to clarify whether Kant’s practical philosophy describes the transcendental deduction of the groundwork of practical reason just like the transcendental deduction of pure reason categories is presented in ‘Critique of Practical Reason’. To solve the aforesaid problem, the author of the article provides a brief description of the deduction of reason categories. After that the author reconstructs the logic of reasoning in the main works of Kant on practical philosophy based on the supposition that the structure of the deduction of Kant’s practical philosophy must be similar to the structure of deduction in speculative philosophy. The author shows that Kant’s practical philosophy presents a successful deduction of the main grounds of partial reason. It is concluded that despite a common opinion in the studies of Kant, his Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and Critique of Practical Reason present the same project of deduction. The author of the present article reconstructs metaphysical and transcendental deduction in Kant’s practical philosophy. The author eliminates the visibility of the vicious circle connected with Kant’s statement that freedom and unconditional partial law are mutually interdependent. It is concluded that the logic of deduction in practical philosophy makes us to significantly extend the term ‘experience’ in Kant’s philosophy.

Keywords: practical philosophy, freedom, transcendental deduction, metaphysical deduction, practical reason, moral law, categorical imperative, experience, will, free will.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2015.11.16905

Abstract: The object of the research is the development history of the terms of European moral philosophy. The subject of the research is the transformation of ethical terms in the XVIIth century which started the process of formation of a modern definition of 'morals' and assimilation of traditional concepts and semantics of moral philosophy. In his research Sochilin examines theoretical, textological, historical-philosophical and institutional contexts of this process. He also describes the origin and historical dynamics of such terms as 'morals', 'ethics', 'moralitas', 'moralia', 'jus naturale', 'lex naturalis', 'honestum', 'honestas' and 'rectitudo'. The research methods include linguistic and general humanities methods such as analysis of the semantic extension of the aforesaid terms, their morphemic analysis and contextual analysis. The researcher relates these terminological transformations to conceptual changes in European moral philosophy. As a result of the research, the author clarifies etymology of the terms 'morals' and 'ethics' and compares them to their Latin and Greek originals. The author explicates similarities and differences in their origin, concludes that the term 'moralitas' has a crucial importance for the formation of today's definition of morals and describes the theoretical grounds thereto. He defines the two interdependent philosophical traditions the aforesaid process was part of (natural law tradition and Thomist tradition with primary Aristotelian ethic terminology) and outlines the scope of texts of the XVIIth century the process could be seen in. The author has also summarized historical dynamics and developed the five-level program for further research.

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2015.11.67228

Keywords: Latin, ethics, morality, history of concepts, history of moral philosophy, Francisco Suarez, morals, Hugo Grotius, natural law, Samuel Pufendord

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.12.7973

DOI: 10.7256/2454-0757.2013.12.63611

Abstract: In modern Russian literature there are almost no researches of ethics in journalism. The author of the present article is filling in the gap. By analyzing six major journalistic codes in different countries as well as a number of theoretical researches, the author of the present article defines the following seven basic ethical values in journalism: truth, no harm, objectivity, freedom of speech, honesty, social responsibility and justice. Journalistic ethics is viewed as a part of a greater system of public morals.