Preservation of ethnic and cultural features by Jordanian Chechens. The role of the Chechen language and the newspaper "Daimohk" in their lives

Musaeva Aset Alievna Postgraduate student, the department of Chechen Philology, Chechen State University 364907, Russia, respublika Chechenskaya, g. Groznyi, ul. Sheripova, 32 a.musaeva953@gmail.com Other publications by this author

The process of the emergence and further formation of a people, called ethnogenesis, includes both the stage of the origin of the people and the stage of its subsequent development, taking into account all ethnographic, anthropological and linguistic features, and is one of the most complex issues studied by science. The origin and development of the people is a very long process that has been studied and discussed for centuries. Migration processes play a significant role in the formation of peoples.

Migration of the population is influenced by various factors (socio-economic, political, religious, etc.) that change throughout history. Thanks to the study of the historical aspect of migration processes in Chechnya, it was possible to identify the roots of this phenomenon and, subsequently, to develop and scientifically substantiate the migration policy of the region. Thus, it is established that the mass resettlement of Chechens began in the middle of the XIX century. Several thousand Chechen families were resettled in the Ottoman Empire in 1862-1865 . Such a massive resettlement was caused by the land crisis, which led to the colonization policy of tsarist Russia ^[1].

The organizer of this relocation was an experienced military commander of those years Mikhail Loris-Melikov, the initiator was the Russian major General of Ossetian origin Musa Kundukhov. For the resettlement of the mountaineers, they took measures in the form of negotiations with the Turkish authorities, after which the acceptance of Chechens in the territory of the Ottoman Empire was approved. Then active agitation was started among the Chechen population. The mountaineers, tired of the prolonged pressure of tsarism, were bribed with conversations about a happy life with their fellow believers in Muslim territory. They were told about the fertility of the Turkish lands, that they were expected there with open arms. In fact, both sides (both the Turkish and Russian authorities) sought their own benefits in this agreement, as a result of which the Chechens turned out to be cruelly deceived victims. As you know, the goal of tsarist Russia was to liberate the Chechen lands from the Chechens themselves, and Turkey, being in an economic and military-political crisis, was interested in immigrants as a military force (everyone was aware of the bravery and valor of Chechen men).

It is worth noting that initially the agitation for resettlement to Turkey was conducted covertly. Musa Kundukhov had to beg his superiors for 10 thousand rubles to bribe several persons who had a certain influence in Chechen society. With their help, agitation was conducted among the population. The local authorities were told to pretend that the tsarist government allegedly did not approve of the migration of mountaineers to the Ottoman Empire. Despite all the efforts of the authorities, the Chechens, who preferred death in their homeland to a sweet life in a foreign land, were in no hurry to leave their fatherland. However, after Kundukhov's agreement with the well-known Chechen naib Sadulla Osmanov to conduct propaganda work among the mountaineers, the case began to gain momentum. Osmanov swore on the Koran to the last to facilitate the resettlement of Chechens to Turkey, and also agreed to be at the head of the second group of settlers, thereby serving as an example to his countrymen. Soon, he and his people began to spread rumors that Chechens would not be left a piece of land, that all the young people would be forcibly enlisted in the ranks of the tsarist army, that older men would be deported to Siberia, and the descendants of mountaineers would convert to Christianity. Ultimately, the fear of Christianization played a role.

The first group of Chechen muhajirs set off in May 1865. (Up to this point, the resettlement of mountaineers was not massive, but it began in 1862 after the approval of the Resolution of the Caucasian Committee on the resettlement of Mountaineers). Instead of the promised fertile lands and a warm welcome from the Turks, the settlers found rocky desert places and the absolute indifference of the Turkish authorities. Poverty, hunger and disease killed most of the migrated highlanders. Life in a foreign land became unbearable day by day. Soon, burying fellow countrymen dying of diseases and hunger, people who were fraudulently deprived of their homeland and doomed to certain death, moved back to their historical land. However, the tsarist government was not going to take them back, and the Turkish authorities were told not to let the mountaineers cross the border. Despite the warning of the Ottoman Empire troops guarding the border, the Chechens, intending to return to their homeland at all costs, moved forward. As a result, weapons were used against them and the settlers, having suffered another loss, were forced to retreat back. But despite everything, in the future, some still managed to return to their homeland. The remaining Chechens were forced to settle on the territory of the Ottoman Empire and assimilate with the local population.

In the process of integration and adaptation in the new environment, Chechens began to establish relations with local residents, engage in agriculture, social activities, serve in the army, etc. Some representatives of the Chechen people became well-known political and military figures, took an active part in public life, enjoyed the honor and respect of local authorities. The descendants of the settlers of that time live today in such countries of the Middle East as Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Iraq. Unfortunately, many of them have lost their native language as a result of gradual assimilation.  Despite this, they position themselves as Chechens and to some extent keep in touch with each other. Jordanian Chechens differ from most others, who, despite the influence of various factors, have preserved their native language and culture. Among the latter there were and are many worthy sons to be proud of. Here are the names of the most famous of them: Beno Idris Sultan (the famous colonel), Bakir Shukri Sabir Abdul-Majid (the first Chechen to die a martyr in Palestine), Osman Abubakr Asandar (the famous military commander), Beno Oib Abdullah (representative of the Turkish authorities), Biytro Muhammad Haddad (representative of the Turkish authorities), Haddad Abdullah Said (founder of the Council of Chechen Tribes in Jordan, for 30 years headed the Chechen charity organization), Bakir Yakub Abdul-Majid (military figure, distinguished himself during the clash of the British and Turkish authorities, spent 15 years in prison for refusing denunciation), Qadri Abdul-Hamid (the seventh successor of Kunta-Hadji), Beno Sami Musa (General, served in the Jordanian Security Department, representative of the upper and lower houses of the local parliament), Bakir Sami Abdul-Hadi (General, served in the Security Department), Bakir Samir Sabir (General of the Jordanian police, now alive), Asandar Adham Bilal (General, served in the air Force), Ahmed Arslan Alaudin (Divisional General of armored troops, twice Hero of Jordan), Abdulatif Said Batal (General of the Jordanian army), Abdul-Baki Jamo (Sheikh, independent deputy from Al-Zarqa), Beno Said Yunis (held a number of official positions in various departments of Jordan up to the Minister of Public Affairs), Ramzi Ahmad (major of the Jordanian Army), Shishan Farid Abdul-Hamid (military commander, hero of Syria and Jordan). Below we will tell you more about some of them. At the same time, we will conduct a short excursion into the history of integration and assimilation of Chechen immigrants in Jordan.

During the liberation movement of 1916-1918, when the Meccan Sharif Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi called on the Arabs to start an anti-Turkish uprising and the rebel detachments led by Hussein's sons began to seize cities in western Saudi Arabia, the Chechens had already adapted and lived compactly among the Arabs. The purpose of this uprising was to liberate the lands of Sham from the power of the Ottoman Empire. At that time, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan was called Transjordan (Zaiordan). Ibn Ali sent his son Abdullah the first to Jordan. It was at this time that the Arab uprising achieved its goal as a result of the retreat of the Ottoman troops from Damascus. The lands of Jordan came under the control of the Arab government, located in Damascus, at the time when Hussein's son Faisal was declared king of Syria. But in 1921, the League of Nations handed over the administration of Syria to France. Exiled from Syria, King Faisal became the king of Iraq. His older brother Abdullah, mentioned above, settled in Jordan, hoping to restore his family's power in Damascus. In the early spring of the same year (1921), Abdullah was the first to meet with Winston Churchill, who was then the British Minister of Colonies. During this meeting, it was decided to appoint Abdullah as the Emir of Zaiordan.

Chechens played a significant role in the struggle for the independence of the kingdom and the subsequent proclamation of Abdullah the First, who was a descendant of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the king of Jordan. This fact is attested in the Jordanian history.

In 1946, Jordan received the status of independence and Abdullah became known as the king. But before that, France, which already had a mandate to govern Syria and Lebanon, wanting to take over the kingdom of Transjordan as well, opposed the reign of Abdullah. When the future king was traveling by train from Syria through Zarqa (the largest city in Jordan, founded in 1902 by Chechens) to Amman, the French army blocked the railway in order to block his path. The French were well aware that upon the arrival of Abdullah the first in the capital of Jordan, both Chechens and local Arabs would advocate his proclamation as king. After learning about this ambush, the Chechen Osman Abubakir Asandar, who at that time headed one of the detachments of the Jordanian army, together with his comrades intercepted the train, rebuffed the French army and accompanied the emir all the way to Amman. Later, during the celebration in honor of his coronation, in gratitude for his act, Abdullah was the First to put Osman Asandar in the very first row, ordering him to put on a Circassian instead of a military uniform ^[4].

Also, one of the first Chechens who earned the trust of the Jordanian authorities was Beno Oib Abdallah. As a representative of the highlanders who settled in the city of Suweil, having learned Arabic and Turkish literacy, he skillfully conducted the affairs of the Jordanian Chechens. In 1929, when the British government replaced the Turkish government in Jordan, Oib, with his wise decisions, managed to establish relations with the new government and improve the life and way of life of his countrymen. At the same time, Oiba Abdullah was often visited by King Abdullah the First of Jordan ^[3].

Thanks to the establishment of relations with the British authorities, Chechens received a number of privileges and positions in the government. In those days, many Chechens distinguished themselves by their courage. Among them was Sultan Idris, who rose to the rank of general of the British army. The Sultan's father and six brothers died on their way to Jordan. The mother, engaged in agriculture, raised her son alone, even taught him to ride. As soon as the Sultan turned 16-17 years old, he decided to join the British army, but he was refused because of his age. However, when he saw how skillfully the guy copes with the horse, he was immediately taken into service, saying that such a good fellow would not have to teach anything. While in the army, he learned English, also knew Turkish and Hebrew. Since childhood, the Sultan was distinguished by responsiveness, generosity and humanity ^[3].

As a major, he took part in the hostilities that formed in May 1948, when the day before the end of the British mandate, Israeli politician David Ben-Gurion proclaimed the creation of the first independent State on the territory of Palestine and the Arab League declared war on Israel.  He later served in the Arab armed forces to the rank of colonel. Having reached retirement age, he left the service and took up agriculture, until the last day he helped people. Sultan Idris was the founder of the first Caucasian Club in Jordan, whose main goal was to teach the highlanders to read and write. And this goal was achieved.

Many Chechens, who had the same courage and valor as Asandar and Oib, left their mark on Jordanian history. Even today, when discussing the history of the kingdom, almost no event is complete without mentioning the exploits of Chechens. 

As you know, quite a lot has been written about the history of the resettlement of Chechens to the countries of the Middle East by Russian historians, writers, and journalists. Recently, the study of the life history of Jordanian Chechens has become especially relevant. However, how and how do they live today? How do they manage to preserve ethnogenetic features in the conditions of biculturalism and bilingualism? How far has the process of assimilation with the Arabs gone? These issues remain poorly studied and practically unlit. Therefore, along with history, we will also try to highlight the modern life of Jordanian Chechens.

Today, about 16 thousand Chechens live in Jordan, most of whom are fluent in the Chechen language at the conversational and everyday level, few people know writing and reading. Arabic as a native language is spoken by absolutely all representatives of the Chechen diaspora, whose ancestors were resettled on the territory of the Ottoman Empire during and after the Caucasian War. In this regard, many have religious knowledge (as we know, Arabic is the language of the Holy Scriptures of Muslims).

There is no doubt that the life of the current generation is significantly different from the life of their ancestors who migrated to Jordan more than a century ago. If then Chechens lived compactly, founding their own settlements and even cities, while feeling like at home, thanks to the opportunity to speak their native language at any time, follow the traditions and customs of their ancestors, today, as a result of the growth of the indigenous population and assimilation with the Arabs, the situation has radically changed. Due to the shallowing of rivers, farming has not become as profitable as in the old days. In order to live with dignity, Chechens have to get a job either as civil servants or military. In this connection, we have to constantly interact with local authorities and the population, which means that we have to speak Arabic to a greater extent. The native language is used only at home. The younger generation now speaks Chechen poorly, uses words incorrectly. Some representatives, even if they speak their native language, think in Arabic. For example, instead of "So hyo lohush vara" they say "So hyuna tIelohush vara" (meaning: I was looking for you), instead of "So and volchu vahara" – "So tsunan volchu vahara" (meaning: I went to him) ^[6]. In addition, among the majority of Jordanian Chechens, Chechen-Arabic bilingualism prevails and only a few speak pure Chechen without mixing with Arabic. If the problem of the first Chechen settlers was ignorance of the Arabic language, today everything has changed exactly the opposite. Nevertheless, given the small number of Chechens in Jordan and the length of their stay in the Arab environment, we can talk about the success of preserving their national language at least at the conversational and everyday level. After all, the problems related to the language listed above are more or less characteristic of us, Chechens living in their historical homeland. Similarly, our younger generation speaks Chechen poorly, and things are even worse with writing and reading. In the same way, we use words in our native language incorrectly. The only difference is that in our case, both young people and the majority of the older generation think in Russian, which prevails in all spheres of life of the Chechen Republic. Accordingly, Chechen-Russian bilingualism is widespread in society and, for the most part, mixed. All this despite the fact that in educational institutions of our region, unlike Jordan, the Chechen language is studied, not to mention its state status.

As for national traditions and culture, despite the lack of basic conditions for this, the Chechens in Jordan have managed to preserve them to this day. Chechen dance, music, folklore are an integral part of the life of Jordanian Chechens. At leisure, both the youth and the older generation gather in Chechen society and hold cultural evenings with the performance of Chechen songs and dances, playing national musical instruments.

Although in isolated cases, there are those who independently study the Chechen literacy, ordering ABC books and a textbook from the Chechen Republic, and then pass on their knowledge to the younger generation, organizing special courses and even school classes to study the Chechen language. Subsequently, they improve their knowledge by regularly reading Chechen fiction, which they also order from their historical homeland. One of these representatives is retired Colonel Abdul-Hamid Bakir, who devoted his life to the study, dissemination and development of the Chechen language. Having independently learned to read and write in his native language, he organized a class at home for classes in the Chechen language and teaches literacy to everyone. In addition, he established a connection with the republican newspaper "Daimohk" (note: the only newspaper in the world published only in the Chechen language) and began writing articles in his native language. Later, he even organized a club of freelance correspondents of the newspaper in Jordan, thanks to which representatives of young people living there began to write for the Chechen editorial office. Among the latter, Mahir Biytro is well–known on the Internet, in particular, on the YouTube resource for his educational video tutorials in the Chechen language. Young enthusiasts-Chechens from Jordan, driven by love for national values, first of all for the language, under the guidance of A-X.Bakira organized a series of publications in the newspaper "Daimohk" devoted to the history and current life of Chechens in Jordan, among which: "Tskha zama yogIur yu vai Daimahka yuhadoyrzush..." ^[2], "Hada yish yotsu Zienash" ^[5], "Daimahkah dolu merza gIan..." ^[22], "Urdunerchu nokhchiyn Ier-daharkh diytsar" ^{[7, 8, 9]}, " Behyo vine k'oman qIe" ^[11], "Betin Akhmadah dosh" ^[18], "Bah-bahanchoh shine doinalla goitu nokhchasha" ^[16], "Jordaneh nokhchasha stag dIavollaran lamastash" ^[19], "Jordaneh nokhchiyn kegiyrh mukha beha?.." ^[20], "Daimahkal arahya" ^[21], "Mott dIatasakh, Tiahxye culture dIayolu" ^[6] and others. The content of publications can be understood from the titles of some articles themselves. Jordanian Chechens tell readers about their current aspirations, how they spend their leisure time and keep in touch with each other, how they worry about their people, culture, language, etc.

Despite the fact that their ancestors migrated from Chechnya more than a hundred years ago, and they themselves were born, grew up and lived all their lives in Jordan, Jordanian Chechens consider the Chechen Republic exclusively their homeland. Moreover, they are so jealous of their national identity that when they gather in Chechen societies organized in the cities of their residence in Jordan, they do not let Arabs near their meetings, because the Chechen culture, rich in original traditions, is alien to the Arabs. According to the Jordanian Chechens themselves, with whom we had a chance to talk during our research, they live their whole lives with the idea that they need to return to their homeland. The Chechen Republic is a dream that beckons them throughout their lives, despite the fact that their homes, families, work - everything connected with them - is located in Jordan. So, for example, the young man Mahir Biytro, who was mentioned a little above, decided to "return" to his homeland before he gets a family and arranges his life, because then it will be more difficult. At the age of 24, he came to Chechnya, which he had never been to, got a job at the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of the republic as a Chechen-Arabic translator and stayed here to live in order to get a family and continue posterity in his historical homeland. The same thoughts and views are shared by many Jordanian Chechens, in particular, young people who have their whole life ahead of them. Despite the fact that all relatives live in Jordan, and no matter how promising the future may seem there, in the Arab environment, at the first opportunity, almost any representative of the Jordanian Chechen youth will prefer to come home to the Chechen Republic.

Occasionally, coming to their historical homeland, Jordanian Chechens become long-awaited guests in the editorial office of the Chechen newspaper "Daimohk", which was mentioned above. For example, Abdul-Hamid Bakir first came to the Chechen Republic at the age of 53 and first of all visited the editorial office of the national newspaper, where he presented a beta version of his online project of the Chechen multi-dictionary. The presentation of the project was also held at the Chechen State Pedagogical University and at the Ministry of National Policy, External Relations, Press and Information of the Czech Republic. The project is a multifunctional electronic dictionary with mutual translation into four languages (Chechen, Russian, English, Arabic), examples of the use of words in all four languages, with all forms of declension of nouns and conjugation of verbs in the Chechen language, professional audio in the Chechen language and other functions. Experts in English and Arabic from among Jordanian Chechens, as well as experts in Chechen and Russian from among the representatives of the newspaper "Daimohk" are involved in the work on the dictionary. The software and database of the electronic dictionary website are located in Jordan. The project is currently under further development under the guidance of experienced programmers from among the same Jordanian Chechens.

Approaching the conclusion, it should be noted that Chechens in Jordan successfully integrated into the Arab environment and significantly assimilated with the indigenous population as a result of interethnic marriages, labor and military activities and other various social factors, but, nevertheless, managed to preserve their national traditions, customs, and language. We can say with confidence that Jordanian Chechens have preserved their native language much better than Chechens living in the Chechen Republic, despite the fact that the former practically do not know how to read and write. This statement is due to the fact that they did not know the grammar of the Chechen language initially, that is, they did not learn it anywhere, unlike the latter. The privilege of Chechens living in their historical homeland is also that the Chechen language and the Russian language, actively used in all spheres of their life, are based on the same writing. Jordanian Chechens, who deal only with Arabic script and Latin alphabet in their lives, face the problem of Cyrillic alphabet recognition when studying the grammar of their native language. Nevertheless, they do it successfully, albeit with small errors. But, again, Chechens who have been studying Chechen writing since school years are not deprived of these errors in writing. Thus, the degree of preservation of the national language and customs by the Jordanian Chechens is such that it is time for us Chechens living in the Chechen Republic to take an example from them.

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