Prerequisites for the Formation of Arabic Medieval Scientific Terminology in the Works of Arabic Scientists as a Special Transition to Scientific Knowledge

Al'-Avad Asil' Rafaa Postgraduate student, Department of Theory and Methodology of Translation, Lomonosov Moscow State University. Higher School of Translation 119415, Russia, Moscow region region, Moscow, ul. Kravchenko Street, 7, sq. 304 aseelrafaa@yahoo.com Other publications by this author

IntroductionThe first Arab achievements in the field of chemistry and chemical terminology belong to such scientists as Jaafar al-Sadiq, Jabir ibn Hayyan, and others.

Jaafar as-Sadiq was one of the first predecessors and scientific mentors of Jabir, who gave him the basics of the alchemical art of metal transformation ^{[17, p. 24]}. In the Arab traditional scientific culture, the Arab scientist Jabir ibn Hayyan was given the name "father of applied chemistry" and "sheikh of all chemists", which in subsequent years became one of the Arabic common names. Such terms are called "eponymous terms", forming the basis of a special vocabulary ^{[4, p. 68]}.  The basis of the Arab medieval teaching in natural science is experimental chemistry and abstraction from mystical conceptual and philosophical ones, since in the works of such medieval scientists as Jabir ibn Hayyan and Razes, all the signs of "true knowledge opposed to probabilistic and imaginary opinion" are outlined, which was spoken about by the Greek philosopher Parmenides (VI century BC) ^{[12, p. 136]}. Jabir ibn Hayan's works were devoted to the discovery of many chemicals and their classification; the invention of new medicines and the creation of a sulfur-mercury theory of the origin of metals.

Our research is carried out on the basis of comparative analysis methods involving the principles of modern terminology, presented in the works of V.M. Leychik, L.A. Manerko, V.F. Novodranova and S.V. Grinev-Grinevich. The article will show the basics of naming and formation of alchemical elements, substances and operations that form the hierarchical terminology of Jabir Ibn Hayyan in general.

In modern terminology, it is possible to trace the processes of differentiation of terms from non-terms, scientists note that "behind the sign-word there is a direct perception and representation of the referent, while behind the sign-term there is a special concept that is a generalized meaning about the subject" ^{[16, p.38]}.

The main partJabir ibn Hayyan (Geber in the European tradition) and Razes, as the greatest scientists in Arab culture who conducted scientific experiments and tried to achieve the conversion of mercury into gold, described in their scientific works the method of obtaining nitric acid and distilled vinegar in order to obtain ethanol acid ^{[7, p. 20]}. Studying the text of the treatises of Jabir ibn Hayyan, it can be noted that within the framework of the mercury-sulfur theory of the origin of metals, the word transmutation of metals is used, which appeared in Arabic treatises.

Among the names of metals we find, copper, copper, iron, mercury, mercury, tin, lead, lead.   Sulfur appears as one of the key elements in terminology. It should be noted that most of those ancient linguistic units functioning in ancient Egyptian alchemy received the names of "prototherms" in the pre-scientific period, denoted not concepts, but representations that were fixed in special scientific speech and then entered scientific terminology.

In addition, with the development of applied chemistry by Jabir ibn Hayyan, the word "special unit" began to function in Arabic culture in the XIII century.  Further in the XIV century, in one of the main dictionaries of philosophical terms belonging to the pen of the Persian grammarian and theologian al-Djurjani (1340-1413) under the name "at-Tarifat" "On definitions" ("A"), the terminological meanings of various lexical units are described. In Arabic traditional science, the term is defined as "consent and contract". According to Arab theologians, this is "a special situation or agreement between a group of people who have a common interest or similar descriptions in relation to any objects; in general or particular cases, to call something this way and not otherwise, after it has been taken out of the scope of the first topic; to transfer a word from one category to another with the goal of achieving the desired value" ^{[19, p. 38]}.

At the beginning of the development of Arabic linguistics in the Middle Ages, three special concepts were distinguished: a word, a term and a dictionary (reference book). A word always has several meanings, and a term is a special lexical unit with one meaning and one denotation.  In the work "On Definitions" - the word is "a linguistic unit designed to denote something. Among righteous people, the word denotes moral essence; metaphysical essence is denoted by ontological categories and abstract essence by contradiction" [ibid.].

 Names in the modern Arabic sense are sensually perceived things, while meanings are mental pictures of these things. The relationship between a thing and its name does not always have a strictly consistent relationship, whereas the relationship between a word and a terminological unit, as an organized construction, always implies a logical and one-sided relationship between the meaning and the term [see Fig. 1]. The problem of the correlation of a term and a word has long been one of the most important in terminology studies and primarily attracted the attention of researchers. Thus, Arab science in the Middle Ages is located in that band of intermediate knowledge that mastered and outstripped Egyptian alchemy, opening the field of experimental chemistry and eventually contributing to the emergence of the so-called Arab medieval scientific terminology.

Grinev-Grinevich in the book "Terminology Studies" describes the most important characteristics and standard properties of terminology, which include the age of terminology, the model of education, origin, kinship and historical core. Considering that there are old and young terminologies, with the advent of various classifications and specialization of scientific knowledge in the Middle Ages, Arabic chemical terminology and Coptic medical terminology can be considered among the old terminologies, the units of which are prototherms. According to scientists, in the protoscientific period, man operated with special representations, the names of which were prototherms. Representation is a sensually visual, generalized image of objects and phenomena of reality, preserved and reproduced in consciousness and without the direct impact of the objects and phenomena themselves on the senses. Since the literature notes the fact that even in the most ancient manuscripts there is a desire to organize knowledge into a system, which is unusual for everyday ideas ^{[14, p. 147]}.

         name/word thing

special vocabulary/term thing        

 Rice.1. Word and term in Arabic interpretation

 S.V. Grinev-Grinevich points out that the tenth century is the point of the report of English and Russian terminology, in which special representations are the basis, and the term always has a connection with the concept ^{[4, p. 67]}. About prototherms E.A. Sorokin indicates that they occupy a place between the commonly used vocabulary and the term, but this not a term, but also not a representation of a naive picture of the world, when the concept becomes sufficiently specific and is separated from the representation, the commonly used word passes into a special vocabulary ^{[15, p. 9]}.

So, the commonly used or generally spoken language and various Arabic dialects, philosophical and religious categories, texts of alchemists, especially the treatises of Jaafar al-Sadiq, quotations from the holy Book of Acts, sacred texts of the apostles and religious sermons of their disciples and followers were used as the main language base for the creation of chemical medieval terminology^{[6, c. 3]}. In this regard, we should recall the opinion of V.V. Vinogradov, "every science begins with the results obtained by the thinking and speech of the people, and in its further development does not break away from the national language" ^{[3, p. 23]} The name in the field of applied chemistry in the Middle Ages was always preceded by the creation of certain mental images and structures. The Russian linguist A.A. Potebnya believes that "the movement in the development of feelings becomes noticeable for us not when, according to the assumption, they are still close to the general feeling, but when their impressions, having formed into images of objects, served each in its own way to create the world" ^{[13, p. 57]}.

For example, the word iksir, the Arabic iksir (dry medicine), was identified with soil or earth (from the Greek. "dry medicine" from "dry). Further, it is transformed by the Arabs into al-iksir elixir of with the help of the article al. The word was first used by Greek philosophers, among Arab scientists since the IX century, with the help of conceptualization and phonetic transformations of Arabic sounds, it is grounded in medieval treatises to a medical drug or substance of animal, vegetable and mineral origin ^{[8, p. 60]}. The word is used in German as German as Elixier (infusion, extract). In Russian , the word elixir has been used since the XVII century . Meaning: "a strong infusion or extract from plants used in medicine, cosmetics, etc." [U1] In our opinion, the primary classifications of substances, the peculiarities of Arabic sounds and phonemes, and the articulatory apparatus of the Arab man served as an important difference between medieval Arabic science and ancient Egyptian and ancient Greek alchemy. About sounds and articulate sound, the Russian linguist A.A. Potebnya writes that it is necessary to look for a definition of it not in what it is – regardless of consciousness, but in how it appears to the speaker's consciousness itself ^{[13, p. 63]}. Another word similar in meaning to the elixir is the philosopher's stone, which scientists attribute to a certain class or to pseudo-terms denoting false concepts or to lexemes that do not have a denotation. However, according to Grinev Grinevich, "pseudo-terms have all the features of terms, including accuracy and the presence of a definition, and the falsity of the concept and the absence of denotations does not mean the absence of the concept itself, since most existing concepts also do not have denotations" ^{[4, p. 47]}.

The scientific experiments of Jabir ibn Hayyan, and then the theories of Paracelsus, led to the creation of modern medicines that made a revolution in natural science in the XX century. The elixir as a medicinal product was often used by Arab alchemists not only figuratively and in a direct sense, it cures diseases and prolongs life. In the treatise "The Sum of Perfections", one of the first classifications is observed in Jabir: medicines or elixirs: medicines of the first order change the properties of metals or in another meaning – these are cheap metals, and medicines of the second order give metals more stable properties - gilded metals. But there are also medicines of the third order, which carry out the final transformation of metals into gold or silver and, in another case, silverware ^{[20, p. 107]}. In ancient and some modern Arabic sources, the synonyms of the word elixir are: philosopher's stone, gold, silver, earth, dry powder, medicine, magical anti-aging agent golden elixir (gold), white elixir (silver), strong infusion on alcohol, acids, used in medicine and cosmetics, elixir of youth.

Jabir introduced two key categories into the mercury-sulfur theory of origin - philosophical mercury and philosophical sulfur, which made it possible to give an exhaustive description of elements and substances, since they penetrate into the deep structures of ancient Egyptian and ancient Greek names of objects and chemical operations. The word comes from the Latin— sera - "combustible substance" "fat". Sulfur from the Arab is combustibility, variability, iridescence, masculine fireiness, and mercury from the Arab. metallicity, hardness, gloss, malleability. "Sulfur" from the Indo-European language swelp (to burn), from Lat. The language cera (wax), serum (serum) and sulphur, which eventually transformed into sulper with the replacement of the letter F with P ^{[18, p. 121]}. As a result, the word acquired the Arabic meaning "gold of the sages". One way or another, the word in all historical contexts indicates the principle of combustibility. In modern etymology, it is noted that the lexeme originated from the Latin sera (wax) or (serum), Old Slavonic with (yat)ra, Old Russian with (yat)ra. The word "sulfur", known in the Old Russian language since the XV century, is borrowed from Old Slavonic, where "s (yat)ra" — "sulfur, resin", in general "combustible substance, fat". Currently, sulfur is understood as "a chemical element used in medicine and technology."

Arabic alchemy is replete with metaphorical descriptions of substances and elements reflecting the Arab mentality and consciousness of the man of that time. In the Arab medieval chemical discourse, cognitive and communicative functions are clearly manifested, which, with the help of metaphor, are able to represent the basic base of scientific knowledge. For example, Jabir describes sulfur as a homogeneous substance that, when heated, disappears and disappears like a spirit. This example clearly demonstrates that at the first stages of the process of education of chemistry as a science and chemical terminology in general, various types of knowledge were involved, including alchemy, philosophy, Arabic and paralinguistic knowledge, behind which there are concepts of a different level of development.  "Mercury, on the other hand, is compared by Arab scientists with metallicity, which is recorded in the etymological dictionary. The word is related to the Lithuanian "rit?" "roll", the Old German "r?don" "twirl". So, "mercury" in its meaning is a "spinner", "wheelchair". The modern English name "mercury" comes from the name of the Latin god of commerce Mercury, who was depicted with wings in sandals.  The god Mercury ran as fast as mercury shimmers. In the Russian etymological dictionary, "rit?" is "I ride", "vertyachka", "gurney". Jabir sees "mercury" as an object that does not stick to surfaces. It was used for gilding the surfaces of various metals. In some Arabic treatises on chemistry, it was pointed out that the word of Greek origin meaning "soft dough" is " ".

The methodological basis for the Jabir chemistry was the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle "On the Soul" and the first matter. "Knowledge for Aristotle is knowledge (of four reasons), which is gradually assimilated through the stages of cognition: sensation-memory-experience-science" ^{[12, p. 137]}.  As it is known that the four elements–elements– heat, cold, humidity and dryness, Jabir used in the interpretation of changes occurring with chemicals, adding to them properties such as malleability, smoothness and metallic luster. Researchers associate the emergence of such a science as experimental chemistry with the latter, since Jabir divided the science studying physical phenomena and another science derived from it related to a narrower field of knowledge, while forming an Arabic chemical terminology in which the corresponding concepts function.

The language of alchemy, thanks to its unique ways of conveying meaning about objects, contributes to a different view of these two so important lexemes, namely, not only as an external object, but also as an internal phenomenon that has its own independent structure, closely related to the external one. The internal structure here is the cognitive side of the chemical term, the main function of which is the choice of appropriate linguistic and mental forms of representation of scientific knowledge in the field of chemistry. Cognitive scientists, including V.F. Novodranova, wrote about the inextricable link between language and knowledge, according to which "language, being part of the real world, simultaneously represents knowledge about the whole world, knowledge about the language itself and knowledge about how language structures all this knowledge, that is, it directly reflects our conceptualization of the world" ^{[12, p.138]}

There is reason to believe that the pre-scientific period of the development of science is the starting point for the emergence of a special vocabulary, since, according to scientists, at that time there were already all signs of specific knowledge, including different types of crafts, for example, as in our case, the Arabic chemical craft. Studying the basics of historical terminology, it can be noted that the term has always been opposed to the vocabulary of a common language, and medieval Arabic chemical terminology is one of those areas where scientists often borrowed vocabulary from everyday speech, do not forget the field of pharmacology and medicine. Because, firstly, this type of borrowing was the main means of replenishing terminology, both in the West and in the East; secondly, on the one hand, it is directly related to the environment or human life, on the other, to profit and profit, like architectural or construction in Europe, experimental chemistry or chemical craft (craftsmanship) was the most important type of human activity in the East. In any case, in each terminology there is certainly a certain number of lexical units that occur both in everyday and professional speech.

The term in the modern sense is a tool with which a particular language captures special knowledge about the world. It is worth recalling the concept of the "linguistic substrate" of the term proposed by V.M. Leychik, based on the fact that "the term is a complex three-layer formation, including a natural language substrate-a material (sound) component of the structure of the term, as well as an ideal (semantic) component of this structure, determined by the term's belonging to the lexical system of a natural language; logical superstrate, that is, meaningful features that allow the term to designate a general – abstract or concrete concept in the system of concepts; terminological essence, that is, meaningful and functional features that allow the term to perform the functions of an element of theory describing a certain special sphere of human knowledge or activity" ^{[9, p. 7]}.

G.O. Vinokur has repeatedly discussed the linguistic side of the term in his works: "the special function in which the word acts as a term is the function of the name. Any word can act as a term... terms are not special words, but only words with a special function" ^{[1, p. 5]}. In modern terminology, the terms of a special field of knowledge are used to name concepts. Studying Arabic treatises on chemical art, for the first time we discovered that the Arabic scientific protothermin at the first stages of development begins to perform the function of defining concepts or nominative. ^{[2, pp. 12-13]}.

Conclusions and conclusion As a result of our research, we came to the following: in the Arabic literary language, there is such a layer as the Arabic medieval scientific terminology, which is divided into unique medical and chemical prototherms, combining all the processing of Arab chemists, physicians and pharmacologists with the help of special "linguistic concepts" that have special weight in the development of science in Arab culture. 

The results of the research can be further applied in the field of cognitive linguistics as a unique material that contributes to the disclosure of the most important Arabic concepts; understanding of the peculiar methods used by Arab scientists in the construction of sounds, lexemes and in the semantic term formation of special scientific systems. Since "the general literary language remains the main source of the formation of terms and the replenishment of term systems, and many terms appeared as semantic neologisms on the basis of a commonly used language" ^{[5, p. 8]}.

The study found that primary linguistic units such as sulfur, mercury elixir, gold, silver, in fact, in the process of rethinking everyday Arabic speech, closely interrelated with scientific, in modern encyclopedic dictionaries may have new definitions.  Since the reinterpretation of the words of the Arabic literary language is an active way of creating terms ^{[1, p. 31]}.      

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