Epigraphic Monuments of Chechnya (on the Example of Tombstones of the Middle of the 19th – the First Third of the 20th Century)

Tesaev Zelimkhan Adamovich Researcher, Institute of Humanitarian Studies of the Academy of Sciences of the Chechen Republic; Postgraduate, Integrated Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences 364001, Russia, Chechenskaya Respublika, g. Groznyi, bul. M. A. Esambaeva, 13 amin.tesaev@gmail.com Other publications by this author

Steles, or Chechen "churts", are traditional gravestones in the cemeteries of Chechnya, which were used before the Islamization of the region. Photographic calculations and brief essays on the tombstone steles were carried out using samples from Himoy, Khoy, Makazhoy, Agishtov, Guni, Goity, Shawls ^{[1, pp. 180, 183, 185-187; 2, pp. 121, 323, 331; 3, pp. 229, 419; 4, p. 44]}, etc. However monographic works on epigraphic monuments of Chechnya have not yet been published.

The author of a fundamental study on the epigraphy of the North Caucasus, L. I. Lavrov, describes only a few memorial monuments of the Chechen Republic. Thus, based on the notes of I. M. Popov of the 60s of the XIX century, L. I. Lavrov mentions a stone that was mounted in the wall of the Kharachoy tower and destroyed in the first years of Shamil's reign ^{[5, p. 83]}. In Vedeno, the scientist notes a sepulchral stele with an inscription dated 28 Muharram 1265 (23.XII.1848): it reports the burial here of Muhammad, the bodyguard of "Imam Shamuyil". There he also investigated another monument, as well as the churt Uzun-Hadji of 1340 (3.IX.1921-22.VIII.1922) ^{[5, pp. 99-100, 112; 6, p. 89]}. In Shawls, the kavkazologist deciphered the epitaph from the churt of the famous abrek Zelimkhan Gushmazukayev ^{[5, p. 111]}. In Khoy – churt 1215 H. (24.V.1800-13.V.1801) ^{[6, p. 75]}. The author also pays attention to the steles in Ersenoe 1244 (13.VII.1828-1.VII.1829) and 1258 (11.II.1842-30.I.1843), Kezenoe (attributed to Adi Surkho, which, according to the author, "obviously, there are no grounds"), Eton-Kali and Harkaroe ^{[6, pp. 82, 87, 89, 116]}. In Grozny, according to the researcher, he discovered "a stone pillar for tying horses, covered with Arabic sayings with the date 1320 (1901-02)", and in Makazhoy – an inscription on a mosque from 1240 (25.VIII.1824-14.VIII.1825) ^{[5, p. 113; 6, p. 78]}.

Attempts to study the monuments of the republic were also carried out by Dagestani researchers ^[7-9]. However, in general, we can talk about a rather weak study of memorial buildings and, in particular, the tombstones of Chechnya.

         With personal participation in trips and expeditions, we met the still existing cruciform steles in the villages of Nihaloy ^{[10, p. 104; 11, p. 6; 28, p. 30, 32]}, Charmakhoy ^{[12, p. 59-60]}, Itar-Kali (photographed by the author in 2019). According to V. I. Markovin, there used to be many similar cruciform steles "scattered along the gorges of the Argun River" (V. F. Miller pointed out the same thing ^{[11, pp. 6-7]}). Interestingly, the excavation of several such burials showed a Muslim burial rite in them ^{[12, p. 59]}. This fact served V. I. Markovin and V. A. Kuznetsov as the basis for the conclusion that these (at least, preserved until the XX century) crosses are "early Muslim steles ("churts")" ^{[10, p. 104]}.

There is also a preserved cruciform stele in Peshkhoy and three steles in Pamyatoe (the excavation of one of them showed a Muslim burial rite) ^{[4, p. 42; 28, p. 32]}. Archival materials also introduce us to sketches of a medieval cross, apparently of Georgian origin, with a recess for an icon on the site of the former village of Chakhkar ^{[11, p. 7; 13]}. However, this sample has a pronounced Christian semantics and, apparently, can be attributed to the XIV, maximum – XV century or earlier period ^{[4, p. 42; 11, p. 7]}.

The scattering of cruciform steles, if we take as a basis the statement about their early Muslim origin, is explained by the fact that the necropolises were preceded by single stele Muslim burials outside cemeteries ^{[14, p. 90]}.

Those steles that still survived in Chechnya or were described by researchers earlier can be classified according to their purpose as tombstone, memorial, borderline and, probably, cult.

         The penultimate category can be safely attributed to the stele with the coat of arms of the Chechen typa Guna at the old road on the top of Oji-duk in the Vedensky district of the Czech Republic. According to the field material collected by us (from the story of M. V. Jamaluev, born in 1950), the stele and the coat of arms depicted on it indicated to the traveler the boundaries of the taipa and the transition to the "jurisdiction" of the corresponding society ^{[2, pp. 56-57]}. Two more churts, probably also of border significance, were recorded by us in Yalkharoy near Vilakh and in Nashkhoy on the watershed ridge between Charmakhoy and Khilakh (photographed by the author in 2021 and 2017, respectively).

         The history of one of the memorial steles dedicated to Khalch Sarakaev is examined in detail by V. I. Markovin ^{[1, p. 26]}. Another sample is a stele known as "Vokkhal–churt", or "Utsi-churt". V. F. Miller made a sketch of the monument back in the 80s of the XIX century and noted its location "not far from the village of Vougi on the road leading to the village of Turkali" ^{[1, pp. 32, 33]}.

         In our opinion, the number of pre-Muslim tombstone monuments should include a tombstone stele in the village of Oshni (Terloi) with the image of a triskelion (a circle with three rounded rays), palms, a man with a bow and a man without any weapon (pronounced gender) ^{[3, pp. 216, 225]}; a stele in aule Khenakh (also Terloi) with an inscription in which Professor Auto Arabuli identified four letters of the ancient Georgian script ^{[15, pp. 65-66]}.

In some graves of the XVII century, there is a transition of the funeral rite; apparently, under the influence of Islam. Thus, in the villages of Phakoch, Vyardy and Hyon-Kha'llah, early Muslim burials are known that are far from "Muslim standards" (a cruciform stele was found in a Muslim cemetery in Hyon-Kha'llah; another one was found in Vyardy ^{[28, pp. 30-32]}). In particular, the burial in Pyakoch demonstrated a mixed Muslim-Christian rite. First, the buried man was lying stretched out on his back against the southern wall of the grave; his arms were crossed over his chest. Secondly, a crypt-shaped chamber was located under the southern wall, and the tombstone stele-churt was decorated with "pagan symbols" (the image of a prostrate man, a bow, a spiral, a solar sign) ^{[1, pp. 142-143; 16, pp. 90-91]}. By the way, the inscription "Muhammad" in Arabic is read in the upper right corner of the stele. V. I. Markovin suggested that the buried man could have been a "convert from the pagans", noting the atmosphere of "double faith" in the local environment ^{[1, pp. 142-143]}.

According to researchers, such pre-Muslim traditions in the design of churts lasted for a long time (although the change of funeral rites occurred "relatively quickly" ^{[14, p. 92]}), and objects that previously accompanied the deceased in the grave now began to be depicted on stelae-churts ^{[14, p. 94; 16, p. 91]}. M. M. Bazorkin also believes that grave goods on Muslim obelisks are remnants of the "cult of ancestral ancestors" and a consequence of the prohibition in Islam of accompanying the deceased with any objects ^{[4, p. 43]}.

It is noteworthy that V. I. Markovin also noted the external attributes of the steles-churts. "Grave steles," the researcher writes, "are quite diverse in shape and have their own symbolism: if the likeness of a human head is depicted, a man is buried here, if a wreath is knocked out around the "head", this is the grave of a hajji (a person who has visited holy places for a Muslim, primarily in Mecca). Sloping, without a “head", the steles are female. All the churts are decorated not only with a masterly embossed inscription and an intricate pattern of ornament, but also with details such as the image of weapons and bandoliers (breast bandoliers) on male steles and various ornaments, respectively, on female ones. Steles are often painted with paints… Many churts are equipped with peculiar canopies in the form of a roof – from rain and snow" ^{[1, pp. 144-145]}.

In this publication, we consider thirteen monuments that have attracted our attention with their content: genealogical trees, military attributes and epitaphs, various symbols, nisbas given in names, memorable dates.

         All texts on the steles are in Arabic and are executed in Naskh's handwriting. On one of the monuments, ajam is used once (in the text of sample No. 10). On some steles there are images of weapons (dagger, saber, flintlock pistol and rifle, natruska, powder horn, banner, etc.), ritual objects (jug, basin, shoes, etc.), ornaments, hands and horse (in rare cases), etc.      

         It should be noted that the terms "" and "", translated by us as "deceased" and "forgiven" (i.e., the one for whom forgiveness is sought), are traditional for gravestone inscriptions. In addition, as it was noted earlier by L. I. Lavrov, the Russians in the epitaphs of the warriors appear under the term "the infidels" ^{[5, p. 11]}.

The decoding of Hijri dates in brackets in italics is ours. The Arabic word "Allah", which is usually left untranslated, has been translated by us accordingly in the decoding of the inscriptions (God).

Stele No. 1 is located in the rural cemetery of the village of Nizhni Kurchali, Vedensky district of the Czech Republic. Rectangular plate, the top is pointed. The name "Allah" is written in the headboard, between two crescents turned outward with the outer side and arranged in a ring. Below follows the area highlighted under the relief inscription; the word "deceased" ("") is separated from the main part of the text; there are twelve lines in total. Churt stands out from the rest by the genealogical tree of the deceased, brought to the outstanding Chechen religious and political figure - Sheikh Bersan Timirbulatov (Chechen Bersa–sheikh; 1561-1624) ^{[17, pp. 164-168]}. Noteworthy is the transfer of the name of Bersan ("") and the epithet used with his name – "close to God" (" ").

Stele No. 2 is also located in the cemetery of the village of Nizhni Kurchali. The slab is traditionally rectangular in shape, the top is rounded. An area for text is highlighted on the slab, repeating the outer contour of the stele. The text consists of sixteen relief lines; the whitewashing of the slab and the allocation of three names (Timarbi, Bersan, Kurchalkha) in the inscription in gold color were made later. This churt arouses interest with a genealogical tree that goes back not only to Sheikh Bersan, but also to the patriarch of the Chechen community Kurchala ^{[18, p. 47]}. It is noteworthy that the fifth ancestor of the deceased was named Abda "a". If our reading is correct, then, apparently, a mistake has been made here and confusion has occurred: most likely, we are talking about Abbas, the son of TIurlo, who is mentioned and listed in the proper place in the list on the previous stele. It is also noteworthy that on this monument there is a different transfer of the name of the sheikh – Berson ("Berson"). In addition, apparently, several names between Tovbulat and Khanbalkh ^{[19, p. 302]} were deliberately omitted by the compiler.

Stele No. 3 was found in the cemetery of the village of Sredniye Kurchali in the Vedensky district of the Czech Republic. A rectangular slab in human height, the images are made in relief: at the head of the bed there is a quatrefoil, below there are gazyrs (above the left gazyr there is a natruska), followed by a text of six lines divided into three sectors. Below – weapons and ritual items (banner, badge, flintlock pistol and rifle, rosary, saber, powder horn, key; below in a separate sector – jug, basin, boots, two pairs of shoes without and with heels). Attention is also attracted by a miniature triangle on the right above the gazyrs: it is possible that this is a display of the Imamate's award, a rare instance in the form of a triangle ^{[20, p. 13]}.

The churta inscription is an example of a calligraphic record. When reading the text, a number of difficulties arose. In the part concerning the name of the deceased, there are various variants: Giamil, GIumail, Giail, Giil, – or one of these names with a second component -GIazi. In the above transcript, we give the variant Giamil, and GIazi is considered as the name of the buried father. Difficulties also arose with the father's name – offering the reading "Giamil – son of GIazi Aldavi (or An-Nadavi)", we do not exclude other options, including "Giamil-GIazi son of Aldam". If the reading of "Aldawi" or "An-Nadawi" is correct, we are talking about the nisba of the deceased's father, GIazi. It is also unclear the purpose of the word "son" ("") and the preposition "in" ("?"") in the first and second sectors, respectively. We also failed to decipher the second line of the third sector of the inscription unambiguously. Perhaps the text refers to some localities ("a" and "a"). In this case, the inscription informs about the move from "Amlas" to "Hakun". In the transcript, we leave the translation option "[yes] it will be for them [it is so]", assuming that the letter "?" has been erased or does not differ in the text. At the same time, it should be understood that such a translation of the ending is ambiguous.

Stele No. 4 is located in the cemetery of the village of Guni in the Vedensky district of the Czech Republic. On a rectangular slab there is a rectangular area in the middle for the main text, divided into two parts; there are seven lines in total. A triangle is attached to the lower part of the main inscription area (vertex to base) with the text inside and its continuation to the left and right of the triangle. The remarkable feature of the stele lies in the content of the additional text – these are the dates of the "great imprisonment of Hadji Kunta" (Chechen theologian Kunta-Hadji Kishiev; ""?") and "imprisonment of Shamuil" (Imam Shamil; ")))))))"). Note that both dates are incorrect. The arrest of Kunta-Hadji took place on January 3, 1864 ^{[21, p. 344]}, i.e. 24 Rajab 1280 H. Shamil's capture was on August 25, 1859 ^{[22, p. 339-340]}, i.e. 26 Muharram 1276 H.

Stele No. 5 was found in a cemetery in the town of Marz-Mokhk of the Nozhai-Yurtovsky district of the Czech Republic. It is a rectangular slab up to the shoulders of a person, with a rounded top. A quatrefoil is inscribed in the circle at the head of the bed, below – gazyrs, under which a rectangular area with a relief inscription in six lines, separated by lines, is cramped on the sides with an ornament. Below are images of daggers, checkers, flintlock pistols and shotguns. Even lower – boots, a pair of shoes without heels, a jug, a basin and, apparently, a key. Under the gazyrs on the left – natruska.

According to the epitaph on the churt, the deceased was killed in the "right battle" in 1855/1856. Difficulties arose when trying to read the fifth word (third line) of the epitaph, we have several options: "", "", "". It is possible that we are talking about some kind of settlement. In the absence of an unambiguous answer, we leave an ellipsis in place of the word.

Stele No. 6 was also found in the cemetery in the town of Marz-Mokhk. The rectangular slab has a recess in which the text is placed, with the exception of the date located below the specified recess (five lines in total). Judging by the text, the deceased – Albaskhan – died in a battle "with the infidels" in 1853/1854, i.e., apparently, we are talking about a battle with the tsar's detachment. The announcement of the name of the father of the deceased caused some doubts: it literally reads as Biytir ("The Betir"), i.e. Betir. Usually the name Betir is transmitted in a different way (""), which is why we had the assumption that the author of the lines skipped the letter mim, wanting to write down the name Biytimir ("").

Stele No. 7 is located by the road at the Makazhoy rural cemetery in the historical and geographical region of Cheberloy (Vedensky district of the Czech Republic) and is a large monolithic slab with a pointed headboard. The relief image on the stele is placed in a figure representing a rectangle with a triangular vertex. The main text consists of eight lines. For the names Abatir, Kiri and Ala, we give possible reading options in parentheses. Also in the name of Dabarnus, the restored part of the word is placed in square brackets.

The monument is notable for the genealogical tree given on it, erected to the famous military and political leader of Chechnya of the XVII century, Gazi Aldamov (Chechen Aldaman GIEZA) ^{[23, pp. 47-48]}, as well as the penultimate line, which lists the names of seven Ephesian youths. The latter are known in the Muslim tradition as "askhabu-l-Kakhif", i.e. "cave companions", and are mentioned in the surah of the Quran "Cave" ("Al-Qahif"). The names of at least four youths on the stele are not given exactly in the traditionally accepted form, since in the Muslim (and Orthodox) tradition they are known as, respectively: Yamlikha (Iamvlikh), Maksalina (Maximilian), Maslina (Martinian), Kafshatatayush (Antonin), Marnush (John), Sazanush (Dionysius) and Dabarnush (Konstantin). Presumably, the mention of these names on the funeral stone is a reference to the motive of immersion in a long sleep (or death) and subsequent awakening (or resurrection).

Stele No. 8 was found in the cemetery of a now-defunct farm, which, according to informants, was called Khambi-otar. The monument has the traditional form of a dagger stuck into the ground for men's burials of the XIX century (the shape of the weapon handle is determined at the head of the stele), as well as gazyrs. The upper part of the monument is damaged (a piece of the headboard broke off). Under the gazyrs between the pattern of the ornament (on the sides) there is a rectangle in which a relief text in nine lines is placed. When studying the text, difficulties arose with the name of the buried. Our proposed reading option – the GUIDE – is not unambiguous. According to the text of the monument, the deceased died in a battle with the "hypocrites" ("))") in 1854/1855. Probably, we are talking about a clash with the opponents of Imam Shamil, since the tsarist troops, as noted above, are designated on the funerary monuments of the Caucasian War by the term "" ("infidels").

         Stele No. 9 was found at the rural cemetery of Enikali (Chechen Ena-Kha'llah; Kurchaloyevsky district of the Czech Republic) and has an elongated rectangular shape in human height, which has become classic for the XX century, with a triangle–shaped top and a stylized swastika adapted to Arabic graphics (composed of two Arabic words: "Hyannan" and "Mannan" - epithets of God in Islamic theology), inscribed in a circle and located at the top of the stele. Above are three names ("Allah", "Muhyammad", "Abubakar"), above which a crescent moon is depicted. Below is an image of gazyrs reflecting the sexual classification of burial stones. The text is placed in four quadrilaterals and written in four lines. All the work is done in relief.

This sample is notable for the image of scales (under gazyrs), referring us to the motif of God's judgment coming immediately after the burial of a deceased person, as well as the image of a horse over the date. For unambiguous conclusions, there is probably little material on the epigraphic monuments of Chechnya today, however, we believe that this detail – the image of living creatures on the churts – is rather a non-widespread (and, apparently, not welcome) innovation on earlier steles. Note that the announcement of the name of the deceased's father – Duck – may have other options (Dick, Duca).

         Stele No. 10 is also located in the cemetery of the village of Enikali. The text of the stele is placed in four rectangles and consists of five lines. Judging by the external signs (shape, relief design, font, gazyri, swastika, scales, etc.), samples No. 9 and 10 are the products of the same master. However, this sample has boots, a jug and a basin for ablution under the date.

         Stele No. 11 was found in the cemetery of the mountain village of HIinda, located in the historical and geographical region of Cheberloy (Vedensky district of the Czech Republic). The stone is rectangular in shape, the images (except for the palm) are made in relief. The text placed in a stylized rectangle is made up of five lines separated by lines, applied in relief. Above, above the text, a triangle is depicted, on the top of which a circle is placed, inside the circle the name "Muhammad" is inscribed. Even higher, in some distance, there are traces of another circle with the erased text. Judging by sample No. 12, "Allah" was inscribed in the circle. The lateral lines of the rectangle in the lower corners extend beyond the figure and have an eversion outward by 270 degrees. Attention is also attracted by the palm depicted under the main text – a symbol common on medieval architectural monuments of Chechnya ^{[3, pp. 71, 216-217, 222-227; 24, p. 140, 163, 167, 197, 198, 213]}. Probably, we are talking about the continuity and integration of pre-Muslim symbols into modern funeral culture.

         Stele No. 12 was also identified by us at the cemetery of the village of Hiinda. The sample is interesting because the text contains the nisba of the deceased (by the name of the village) – Al-Hiindiya. The text is applied in relief and consists of four main lines separated by lines and placed in a rectangle. A rhombus is placed on the rectangle (inside – the inscription "Muhammad"), on the rhombus – another rhombus (the inscription "Allah"). On top of the last rhombus – apparently a crescent moon; on the sides - one circle, resembling solar symbols. The lower right edge of the stone is damaged (apparently – erosion due to the effects of rains).

         Stele No. 13 is also located in the rural cemetery of the village of Hiinda. As in the previous copy, the use of nisba in the name of the deceased is of interest. In this case, there is another version of the transfer (No. 12 – al–X I indiya; here - X I indahiyya). The stone is triangular in shape with a triangular recess for the text inside. Above the notch is a pentagram. It should be noted that the difficulty was caused by the announcement of the name of the deceased's father – Kurkala (Karkal, Kurkul?). This name – Karkalo – is found in the onomastics of heroes whose activity dates back to the XVII century ^{[25, p. 256; 26, p. 96; 27, p. 13]}.

Next – translations of inscriptions.

         Stele No. 1. The village of Nizhny Kurchali. The text of twelve lines: "The late GIaib is the son of Umha, the son of Murdal, the son of TIurlo, the son of Murtaz–Ali, the son of Mohmad-Ali, the son of Abbas, the son of TIurlo, the son of Bersan, who is close to God. 1344 (21.VII.1925–9.VII.1926)».

Stele No. 2. The village of Nizhniye Kurchali. The text of sixteen lines: "1312 (4.VII.1894-22.VI.1895). Usma is the son of Mitikash, the son of Timarbi, the son of GIazkiri, the son of Akhmadh, the son of Abd, the son of Mukhmad-Ali, the son of Murtaz-Ali, the son of TIurlo, the son of Berson, the son of Timirbulat, the son of Tembulat, the son of Tovbulat, the son of Khanbalkh, the son of Kurchalkh."

Stele No. 3. The village of Sredniye Kurchali. The text of six lines: "The son killed in battle with the infidels (?) in the month of God Rabiu-l-Avval in (?) Giamil is the son of Giazi Aldavi. [He committed] an even (i.e. clear, safe. – ed.) the journey, [yes] will be for them [it is so]. Date: 1273 (29.X.-27.XI.1856) year".

Stele No. 4. The village of Guni. The main text consists of seven lines: "The late, forgiven Shahra is the daughter of Elmarz. [Yes] God have mercy on them [both], amen. 1304 (29.IX.1886–17.IX.1887)».

An additional text of ten lines: "The date of the great imprisonment of Haji Kunta, [may] God sanctify his mystery. 1282 (26.V.1865–14.V.1866).

         Date of Shamuel's imprisonment. 1275 (10.VIII.1858–30.VII.1859)».

Stele No. 5. The place of Marz-Mohk. The text of six lines: "The deceased, killed in the right battle ... Ayshan is the son of Kurban. [Yes] God have mercy on them, amen. The year 1272 (12.IX.1855-30.VIII.1856)".

Stele No. 6. The place of Marz-Mohk. The text consists of five lines: "The deceased, forgiven [killed] in a battle with the infidels: Albaskhan – the son of Biytir, – in 1270 (3.X.1853-22.IX.1854)."

Stele No. 7. Makazhoy village. The text consists of eight lines: "[May] the blessing of God be. There is no power and there is no power for anyone except God. This is the grave of Arsnak, the son of Abatir (Betir?), [son?] Maha, son of Ala (Ali?), son of Mahash, son of GIalash, son of Kiri (Giri?), son of GIazi, son of Aldam, son of Aidamar. Oh, my God! Forgive them and have mercy on them. Yamlikha, Maksaliba, Mashlina, Kafshaya, Makar, Sazanus, Da[bar]nus. 1338 (25.IX.1919-12.IX.1920)".

Stele No. 8. Hambi village-otar. The text consists of nine lines: "The deceased, forgiven – killed in battle [with] hypocrites, GIaid is the son of Akya. [Yes] God have mercy on them, amen. In the year 1271 (23.IX.1854-11.IX.1855)".

Stele No. 9. Aul Ena-Kha'llah. The text consists of five lines: "The late Abdul-Haji is the son of Dak. [Yes] God forgive them, amen. 1339 (13.IX.1920–2.IX.1921)».

Stele No. 10. Aul Ena-Kha'llah. The text consists of five lines: "The late Sayyid-Alvi is the son of GIozhakh. [Yes] God forgive them, amen. 1345 (10.VII.1926–29.VI.1927)».

Stele No. 11. The village of Hiinda. The text consists of five lines: "The late, forgiven Abdurazak is the son of Abdul-Khialim. In 1352 (25.IV.1933-13.IV.1934) [year]".

Stele No. 12. Aul Hiinda. The text consists of four lines: "This is the grave of Zezag, the daughter of Shepaa al-Hiindiya. [May God forgive] them [and] rest them. In [date]".

Stele No. 13. The village of Hiinda. The text consists of four lines: "This is the grave of Shahiid, the son of Kurkal HIindahiyya. [Yes] God have mercy on them, amen. In the year 1306 (7.IX.1888-26.VIII.1889)".

Photos of the studied steles.

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