Syncretism of Paganism and Orthodoxy in the Mari and Udmurt Cultures: Confessional markers in the natural landscape

Odegova Kseniya Igorevna ORCID: 0000-0003-4745-6032 Laboratory Assistant, Department of Cultural Studies, Sociology and Philosophy, Vyatka State University 610000, Russia, Kirov region, Kirov, Moskovskaya str., 36 NakatsuSobi@yandex.ru

Bykova Ekaterina Vasilievna ORCID: 0000-0002-6024-5398 PhD in Art History Associate Professor of the Department of Cultural Studies, Sociology and Philosophy, Vyatka State University 610000, Russia, Kirov region, Kirov, Moskovskaya str., 36 ev2_74@mail.ru

Introduction.  

The Kirov region is unique in its multiethnic and multi-confessional composition, as well as in the peculiarities of the formation of the modern composition of the ethnic population. The southern regions of the Kirov region border on the Republics of Udmurtia, Tatarstan and Mari El. Vyatka province was formed on the lands of the Finno-Ugric peoples: Votyaks, Cheremissov. Historians before 1917 often described these lands with the Mari and Udmurt populations, emphasizing the syncretism of their worldview, their preservation of their pagan traditions in combination with Christian beliefs ^{[1; 2]}. The empirical base of the study is the materials of expeditions 2017-2023 to the Kizmezsky, Malmyzhsky districts of the Kirov region, where Mari and Udmurts live, occupying, according to according to the results of the All-Russian Population Census in 2020, the third and fourth largest in the Kirov region after Russians and Tatars.

The purpose of the study is to analyze the representation and visualization of the syncretism of paganism and Orthodoxy in the Mari and Udmurt cultures through confessional markers in the natural landscape based on modern expeditionary research 2017-2023.

Research methods and methodology.

The theoretical basis for studying the problem of dual faith in the cultures of the Udmurts and Mari people were the methods of analyzing the peculiarities of religious and ethno-cultural interactions of these peoples, proposed in the works of A.V. Viskalin, V. E. Vladykin, I. K. Kudryavtseva, M. V. Kutsayeva, etc. ^[3-15]. The works of O. V. Desyatkova, M. A. Mikhailov, A. I. Mikheev and others ^[16-22] were used as a methodological basis for the analysis of sacred objects inscribed in the natural landscape. The literature on the Christianization of Udmurtia and the Mari Region provided an opportunity to consider the work of missionaries and the mechanisms of adaptation and fusion of paganism and Christianity. Historical and cultural comparison is one of the methods that allowed us to turn to traditions and identify the level of their preservation and transformation ^[23-25]. The analysis of empirical data obtained as a result of an informal survey (interview) within the framework of expeditions ^[26] was carried out on the methodological principles of the analysis of textual materials. A description of sacred places of worship has been made, as well as a photo fixation.

The results of the work.

The deification of nature: sacred groves and fields. Mari and Udmurts occupy a special place in the multiethnic environment of the Kirov region, the former of whom live in Urzhumsky, Malmyzhsky, Kiknursky, Yaransky, Pyzhansky and Kilmezsky districts, the latter prevail in Vyatka-Polyansky, Malmyzhsky, Slobodsky, Kilmezsky and Omutninsky districts. Both of these peoples have been adherents of paganism since ancient times. In their beliefs, they adhered to polytheism, totemism, shamanism and animism, deifying nature, offering sacrifices to deities and various creatures in sacred groves, worshipping idols ^{[12, pp. 7, 65]}. Despite the introduction of Christianity and the struggle against double faith, the Mari and Udmurts, having adopted the Orthodox faith, combined it with their native pagan ideas ^{[13, p. 502; 16, p. 346]}.

Most modern Mari and Udmurts are predominantly Orthodox, i.e. they attend the Russian Orthodox Church, observe Orthodox traditions (pray, fast, celebrate holidays). But they also retain some elements of double-faith, for example, the Mari believe in Kugu–Yumo, a kind of supreme deity of their pagan pantheon, the progenitor of all things ^{[12, p. 153]}.

One of the places where this deity was worshipped was the sacred grove of Yumo Oto, which is located in the village of Azikovo in the Kilmez district. Pagan rituals, sacrifices, family and community prayers were held in this grove among the fields. On the eve of the sacrifice, people washed in baths and put on clean white clothes. Sacrifices were performed once or twice a year, where the supplicants turned to Heaven, asking for a peaceful life. Domestic animals such as calves, sheep, goats, poultry, etc. were sacrificed.

Marina Alexandrovna T., a resident of the village of Malaya Kilmez (born 1970, Mariyka, Orthodox) recalls: "There is a forest on the prayer field, and in the middle there is a clearing. It is overgrown already, but the forest, it is so bright, there are few small trees there. And sacrifices were made in this clearing. So, only women who do not have periods came in and before going there, you need to wash, clean, you need to put on clean clothes ... men are the main thing, they made a sacrifice and prayed. The man necessarily killed the animal. The others helped, prepared, and prayed too. In general, they go there after lunch, it seems not on certain days. Those who pray for 3 days spend the night there. First they prepare, then they prayed, then the sheep... A ceremony is performed over a ram. And then they say that the person who makes the sacrifice, he feels painfully good."

According to the memories of residents, such mass prayers took place from 1941-1945, during the Great Patriotic War. In the post-war years, they declined due to the persecution of believers and were replaced by private sacrifices, where only close relatives and neighbors became participants. Such rites were performed in winter on the new moon, secretly, sometimes in the homes of some residents. The sacrificial animal was brought into the house, where it was doused with water. It was believed that when an animal shakes off the water, the heavens are ready to accept the sacrifice. After that, the animal was slaughtered, all the blood was collected, the skin was wrapped and put under the table. Meat was cooked, tortillas were baked and porridges were cooked for it. The Mari people cut small pieces from each part of the animal and, praying, threw them into the fire. The remains of the festive table were collected and burned after the meal.

There is a legend associated with the sacred grove that a treasure is buried there. If in October, before the Intercession, a prayer is said at this place, then a fire will light up. If it is lit with white light, then silver is buried, if yellow, then gold. But despite the fact that Yuto is sacred to the Mari, they have some concerns about these places.  So Olga Nikolaevna R. (born in 1929, D. Malaya Kilmez, Mariyka, Orthodox) says: "When we went to mow, so... I'm even afraid to look... it's scary ... everything is happening." This is due to the fact that the grove is shrouded in many legends related to the unusual death of people who happened to be at this prayer ground. Some simply went crazy, some could not find a way out, getting lost in this small forest, and others were driven out by an invisible force. Therefore, just like that, for no particular reason, people do not approach these places.

In the 21st century, some villagers are trying to revive the tradition of universal prayers. For example, in 2006, before the anniversary of the village of Malaya Kilmez (225 years old) A general prayer was held at the grove, inviting the Supreme Leader from Mari El, but there were few local residents. In 2007, local old-timers who remembered the history of this place were invited to perform the ceremony. 18 people have already observed the sacrament, which indicates some interest of local Mari people in preserving the historical memory of their people.

Another place where prayers are held today is the pagan grove in the village of Kamenny Klyuch in the Malmyzhsky district. It was dedicated to the summer holiday of Surem. Traditionally, the ceremony is accompanied by a bonfire, sacrificing pieces of pancakes and other food, offering coins to the sacred birch tree and tying handkerchiefs and ribbons on branches. The essence of the summer holiday of Surem is the exorcism of evil spirits. Also, with the help of religious and magical rituals, they tried to appease the gods and enlist their support in economic and family life.  Now the Mari people do this so that the prayers are not interrupted, the ancient Mari rituals are not forgotten. It should be noted that in the villages and their surroundings, where there are prayer groves, there are no Orthodox churches and chapels.

Unlike the Mari, the Udmurts of the Kirov region do not have such a spread of cult groves, most often they prayed in the field or in clearings near the forest. Thus, according to the research of I. K. Kudryavtseva and N. I. Shutova ^{[6; 13]}, many Udmurt villages often had prayer grounds near them, for example, a hat in the village of Siberia of the Uninsky district. Now many of the prayer sites are abandoned. But once local residents went there together with priests and icons to pray on Orthodox holidays, as well as independently – to appease various deities, for example, Imma vozhshuda. The Udmurts built bonfires in the prayer grounds, brought bread with them, sometimes sacrificed animals (ducks, geese, sheep, etc.), cooked porridge. Also, the locals appealed to the mercy of the gods, asked for a good harvest, health, and well-being. Here, traditional holidays associated with natural cycles were celebrated in prayer grounds, for example, the feast of foliage, which gradually merged with the Orthodox Trinity ^{[6, pp. 123-124; 13, pp. 493-496]}. All this reflects the preservation of pagan traditions and their combination with Christian rituals.

The deification of nature: The Master of the forest. Due to the spiritualization of nature by the Mari, their whole life was connected with the forest. Therefore, it was there that divine services, religious celebrations and sacrifices were performed. According to Mari beliefs, the forest is inhabited by magical creatures – gods and evil demons. One of these creatures, which is still remembered, is the Owner of the forest. It is believed that "The owner of the forest is as tall as a ravine, dressed in a large long cloak, has a hat on his head and a long beard" (Antonina Mikhailovna K., born in 1959, village of Malaya Kilmez, Mariyka, Orthodox). It manifests itself in the appearance of strong winds and the swaying of trees. It is he who does not allow ordinary people to enter the groves sacred to the Mari people.

Therefore, every Marian, when going to the forest for mushrooms or berries, observes the tradition: he takes with him "unagindim" – a gift to the Owner of the forest, designed to appease him. This tradition is passed down from generation to generation. Antonina Mikhailovna K. (born in 1959, D. Malaya Kilmez, Mariyka, Orthodox) recalls: "Even my grandfather, he also loved to go to the forest all the time and I was like an assistant. [...] He had such a habit, he goes into the forest, and now I have been using this habit for a long time, since my grandfather died. He goes into the forest and puts a piece of bread on a stump, sprinkled with salt, and says: "pick it up yourself and help us." Modern Mari people also teach this tradition to their children, thereby paying tribute to the past and preserving the uniqueness of their culture: "Now even children are accustomed. They go to the berries, yes, they always take bread with them. When they come in or into the field, even if they put bread on, and then, or before leaving, they put it down, well, as it has been customary from time immemorial" (Marina Alexandrovna T.).

Udmurts also have beliefs about the Owner of the forest. They call him "gondyr", which means bear in translation. Nina Matveevna B. (born 1960, D. Paska, Udmurt, Orthodox) says that "he can be considered a cult animal." To appease the Owner of the forest, Udmurts, collecting mushrooms and berries, constantly say: "Gondyr kutoz", which can be literally translated as "the bear takes / collects". It was also forbidden to make noise in the forest, so as not to anger the Gondyr.

Another hypostasis of the deity of nature was the owner of the Wild Nature Lud. In the village of Maly Polom of the Uninsky district, the Udmurts performed a sacrificial offering ceremony to the owner of the Wild Nature and deceased ancestors, during which young people left treats under a birch tree. The owner of the Wild could also be contacted if there was trouble in the family, cajoling him with tortillas. At the same time, Ludu's prayer was often held on Trinity with the participation of Orthodox priests ^{[13, pp. 493-494]}. That is, as part of the church's struggle with pagan beliefs, the latter are being adapted to Orthodox realities.

Hero worship: sanctuaries. In addition to sacred groves and beliefs in the Owner of the forest, the Mari people have sanctuaries dedicated to various heroes. One such popular monument of the sacred cultural landscape of paganism, according to N. S. Popov ^[21], is the sanctuary of Chembulatov Mountain, located on the Nemda River in the Sovetsky district. There is a tall stone on the shore, resembling a man from a distance. According to legend, it was here that the Mari prince, the military leader and head of the fortified town of Chembulat, was buried. The Mari believed that he was not only fast, strong and dexterous, but also wise, as he was able to find the right words to appease the deities. According to legend, the hero's spirit, after holding a prayer with appropriate sacrifices, can appear to the Mari and help them ^[21]. In Orthodoxy, the hero Chembulat turned into "Ivan the warrior."

Not far from the sanctuary, in the village of Dolbilovo, a chapel was built on the site of the holy spring, where both Russians and Mari people came to pray. In the 1930s, the chapel was destroyed, but the sacred cultural landscape preserves the place of the key's exit to the surface by building a canopy and ennobling the area around the key. The religious significance of the place is enhanced by the rumor about the healing power of the key, which helps against all diseases.

Another hero revered by the Mari is the healer Akpatyr, whose sanctuary is located near the village of Bolshoy Kityak  Malmyzhsky district. According to folk legends, he organized the first Mari village, possessed remarkable strength and wit. Grave grave After the death of the hero, people came to his grave, where a birch tree was planted, and asked for help with the treatment of relatives and friends, pets, solving difficult life circumstances, etc. For example, conscripts came to Akpatyr's grave with coin offerings, lit candles and asked that the service in the army be successful. If the soldier returned safely from service, then a sacrifice was performed in honor of Akpatyr. A table was set in the house and the spirit of Akpatyr was invited to stay for one night. Prayers were read at the table and the saint was thanked. In the morning, the hero's soul was accompanied, and the bones of sacrificial animals were burned near the sacred birch tree. Every year in August, the feast of veneration of Saint Akpatyr is held, accompanied by ancient Marian prayers ^[21].

Tribute to the dead: funerals, prayer services, sacrifices. An important place in the religion of the Mari and Udmurts is occupied by ideas about the afterlife and the existence of the souls of the dead after death. According to the beliefs of the Mari people, the soul of the deceased has all the properties of a living person. The souls of the dead are invisibly present among relatives, and some residents are able to feel such a presence. Antonina Mikhailovna K. (born in 1959, village of Malaya Kilmez, Marika, Orthodox) told about a similar case: "I was sitting late at the club, and I heard the door creak, footsteps, came to me, breathed into my back, I told her that I had done nothing wrong so that she would leave with God. This ghost of a grandmother often appears when young people stay in the club for a long time." In addition to endowing the soul with the qualities of a living person, the Mari people also believe that in the next world a person will have the same life as in this world: "what's there, to the nines or whatever, they probably work there as well as here" (Alexander Anatolyevich I., born in 1946, D. Malinovka, Mariets, Orthodox). The Mari people are also sure that at the place where the Siberian highway passed through Kilmesi, the restless souls of the prisoners who died there walk.

The funeral rites of the Mari people, which, although they take place mainly according to Russian Orthodox customs, contain elements of paganism. The deceased is placed in a coffin in the national Mari costume, and there, as Antonina Mikhailovna K. (born 1959, Malaya Kilmez, Mariyka, Orthodox) tells him, they put threads of three colors in order "to swing on a swing in paradise", and a twig "to drive dogs away from themselves on the way". The deceased is buried by the priest, but sometimes after all the Orthodox rituals, the Mari also perform a sacrifice, which is characteristic exclusively for the pagan tradition.

A striking manifestation of the pagan faith among the Udmurts is the rite of sacrifice to the dead. For example, Nina Matveevna B. (born 1960, D. Paska, Udmurt, Orthodox) talks about how this happened: "Round dances, songs, we light a bonfire, jump over it. Then we put the bones in a bucket, in colored rags, for example, green for me, red for you, wrap the money, and then throw the whole bucket into the fire. Someone collects the money later. This is often when sheep are slaughtered, cows, piglets are not there, there are more sheep, cattle."

Conclusions. Thus, the long process of Christianization of the Udmurt and Mari populations of the Kirov region could not withstand the strength of their ethno-confessional identity and adherence to pagan traditions and beliefs. Currently, elements of both Orthodox and pre-Christian beliefs coexist in the culture of these peoples in a harmonious syncretic unity. Stereotypes of double-faith can be found in the conduct of special rituals, in the features of the funeral rite, in relation to nature, in ideas about the soul, as well as in a sincere belief in the truthfulness of some legends and myths. Some memories of places of worship go into the past along with representatives of the older generation, and some are passed on from parents to children, thereby ensuring multiculturalism that determines the development of society. At the same time, the original syncretism of Orthodoxy and paganism of the Mari and Udmurts of the southern districts of the Kirov region serve as a means of ethnic identification in the formation of a sacred cultural and natural landscape.

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